Feynman Says Unexplained Anomalies Drive Physics Toward Simpler Laws

defjam99b

Unlike chess where additional rules increase complexity, physics progresses by resolving unexpected anomalies through periodic unifications that simplify fundamental laws.

AI-assisted summary of Feynman :: Rules of Chess — original source. Check the original for full context.

Source published: 2007-02-21

Key ideas

Richard Feynman frames scientific inquiry as observing a cosmic chess game played by gods, where human scientists must deduce fundamental laws solely from intermittent glimpses of the board. (0:00)
Progress in fundamental physics is driven primarily by anomalies and phenomena that fail to match existing expectations, rather than repeated confirmation of known rules. (0:00)
Scientific revolutions occur when long-standing assumptions are disrupted by unexpected edge cases, analogous to a bishop appearing on a new color following pawn promotion. (1:14)
Unlike chess, which grows more complex as special rules are added, fundamental physics periodically achieves simplicity through unifications that integrate diverse phenomena. (1:14)

Detailed notes

## Background Published on YouTube by channel defjam99b in February 2007, this archival clip features physicist Richard Feynman discussing the rational scientific method. The description notes that the segment explores scientific increments, revolutions, and the rule of castling.

## TL;DR Richard Feynman illustrates the scientific method by comparing nature to a grand game of chess played by gods, where human observers must deduce underlying rules from partial glimpses of the board. True scientific progress occurs when anomalies—such as castling or a promoted pawn changing bishop colors—disrupt settled expectations, driving researchers to look deeper. Feynman contrasts the analogy with physics, noting that while chess rules become more complicated with added exceptions, nature ultimately tends toward simplicity through periodic unifications that synthesize disparate phenomena.

## Atmosphere & style The presentation carries Feynman's signature intellectual charm, blending playful storytelling with profound philosophical clarity. His conversational and intuitive delivery turns an abstract epistemological concept into an accessible, gripping detective story about observing gods at play. It feels both intimate and expansive, evoking a genuine sense of curiosity and wonder at how nature's deepest regularities hide behind apparent anomalies.

## Bulletin - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Richard Feynman frames scientific inquiry as observing a cosmic chess game played by gods, where human scientists must deduce fundamental laws solely from intermittent glimpses of the board. - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Progress in fundamental physics is driven primarily by anomalies and phenomena that fail to match existing expectations, rather than repeated confirmation of known rules. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) Scientific revolutions occur when long-standing assumptions are disrupted by unexpected edge cases, analogous to a bishop appearing on a new color following pawn promotion. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) Unlike chess, which grows more complex as special rules are added, fundamental physics periodically achieves simplicity through unifications that integrate diverse phenomena.

## Key takeaways - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Nature can be analogized to a grand chess game played by gods, observed by humans who are never directly told the rules. - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Scientists must infer the underlying laws of the universe from partial, intermittent glimpses of only small corners of reality. - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Observing that a lone bishop stays on one color represents an initial empirical regularity discovered through observation. - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Discovering that bishops move along diagonals reveals a deeper fundamental rule that explains the surface-level color regularity. - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) The emergence of an unexpected move like castling disrupts settled understanding and forces observers to investigate novel exceptions. - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Fundamental physics advances by focusing on the things that do not fit rather than continually re-verifying working conclusions. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) Scientific revolutions take place when long-established physical laws encounter unexpected conditions that reveal their limits. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) An apparent violation of a rule—such as a bishop on an unexpected color—can lead to discovering mechanisms like pawn promotion. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) The game of chess becomes increasingly complicated as more special rules and exceptions are added to the rulebook. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) Exploring new domains of nature initially floods physics with apparent complexity, such as new particles and phenomena. - [01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) Nature diverges from chess through periodic unifications that integrate disparate observations into simpler underlying laws.

## Detailed walkthrough ### [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) Observing the Chess Game of Nature and Unexpected Anomalies

Richard Feynman introduces an analogy to describe the scientific effort to understand nature. He suggests imagining that the gods are playing a grand game of chess while human observers watch without being told any of the rules. Observers are only permitted to look at the board from time to time, perhaps catching glimpses of only a small corner. From these partial observations, they must deduce the underlying rules governing how the pieces move. Over time, an observer might notice an initial empirical pattern: whenever there is only one bishop on the board, it always remains on squares of the same color. Later on, they discover a deeper rule—that bishops move strictly along diagonals. This discovery provides a deeper explanation for why the bishop never changes color, demonstrating how science progresses from identifying superficial regularities to uncovering fundamental principles that explain them.

Everything can appear settled and well understood until a sudden, unexpected phenomenon occurs in a corner of the board: castling. Because this move does not conform to the observer's established rules, it demands immediate investigation. Feynman points out that fundamental physics operates in precisely this manner: scientists do not spend their careers merely confirming conclusions they already understand. As Richard Feynman explains, “The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting.” The primary drive of physics is to pursue the phenomena that fail to align with current expectations rather than perpetually re-verifying the things that already work.

- The analogy envisions nature as a grand chess game played by gods, with scientists as observers trying to deduce the rules from limited views of the board. - An initial rule (a lone bishop stays on its color) is later explained by a deeper rule (the bishop moves on diagonals). - The emergence of castling represents an anomaly that forces observers to investigate unexpected exceptions rather than resting on settled conclusions.

[01:14](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=74s) Revolutions in Physics and the Search for Unification

Feynman extends the chess analogy to explain scientific revolutions. After observers watch bishops move along diagonals and maintain their square color for a very long time, that behavior becomes universally accepted knowledge. Then, unexpectedly, an observer witnesses a bishop changing its color. Only after further investigation do they uncover the full mechanism: the original bishop was captured, and an advancing pawn reached the far end of the board to be promoted into a new bishop on the opposite color. In the same way, physical laws can appear completely reliable across extensive testing until an unforeseen gimmick exposes their limitations, prompting researchers to determine the precise conditions responsible for the anomaly and formulate a deeper rule.

Feynman highlights a crucial difference between the game of chess and fundamental physics. In chess, learning additional rules—such as castling or pawn promotion—makes the rule set increasingly complicated. In physics, however, nature exhibits an underlying drive toward simplicity. While expanding into new experimental domains introduces a flood of new particles and phenomena that initially make physical laws seem complicated, periodic breakthroughs synthesize these discoveries. As Richard Feynman notes, “Every once in a while we have these integrations in which everything is pulled together in a unification, which it turns out to be simpler than it looked before.”

```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: Scientific Discovery via Feynman's Chess Analogy accDescr: Progression from basic observations to anomalies, revolutions, and ultimate physical unification. subgraph Observation ["Initial Observation"] A["Observe board corners intermittently"] --> B["Empirical rule: Bishop stays on one color"] B --> C["Deeper rule: Bishop moves diagonally"] end subgraph Anomaly ["The Unexpected Anomaly"] C --> D["Anomaly observed: Bishop appears on new color"] D --> E["Underlying mechanism: Pawn promotion creates new Bishop"] end subgraph Divergence ["Chess vs. Nature"] E --> F["Chess: Accumulates complex special rules"] E --> G["Physics: New domains reveal more particles"] G --> H["Unification: Integrations reveal simpler fundamental laws"] end ```

- Revolutions occur when long-standing assumptions fail, exemplified by a bishop appearing on the opposite color due to pawn promotion. - Unlike chess, where special moves make the rulebook increasingly complicated, physics moves toward conceptual unification. - Although exploring wilder regions of nature initially adds apparent complexity by uncovering new particles, periodic syntheses reveal that the core laws are simpler than previously believed.

## Notable quotes > [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting. — Richard Feynman

## Mentioned Richard Feynman

## Video description Richard Feynman on the rational scientific method; increments and revolutions and castling.

[Source](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4)

中文简报

费曼指出：未解异常推动物理学走向更简练的规律与增加规则会导致复杂度上升的国际象棋不同，物理学通过周期性统一来化解意外异常，从而简化基本法则并向前发展。理查德·费曼将科学方法比作观看诸神对弈的一场宏大国际象棋，人类观察者必须通过断续瞥见的棋局来推导其潜在规则。真正的科学进步发生在王车易位或兵升变改变主教格色等异常颠覆既有预期之际，这些反常驱使研究人员更深入地探究。费曼将该比喻与物理学进行了对比，指出国际象棋的规则会因增加特例而变得愈发复杂，而自然界最终却倾向于简单，会通过周期性的大统一来融会贯通原本各异的现象。理查德·费曼将科学探究比作观察诸神对弈的宇宙棋局，人类科学家必须仅凭对棋盘的断续窥探来推导基本定律。 (0:00) 基础物理学的进步主要由打破既有预期的异常和反常现象所推动，而非单纯依赖对已知规则的重复印证。 (0:00) 科学革命发生于长久以来的假设被意想不到的极端特例打破之时，类似于兵升变后主教出现在新颜色格子上所带来的冲击。 (1:14) 国际象棋会随着特殊规则的增加而变得更复杂，与此不同的是，基础物理学通过整合各类不同现象的周期性大统一，最终走向精简。 (1:14)

Reading summary

Richard Feynman compares the pursuit of fundamental physics to observing a cosmic chess game without a rulebook, arguing that scientific breakthroughs occur when researchers investigate anomalies that break established patterns. Deducing Fundamental Rules from Empirical Anomalies (0:00) Feynman illustrates the scientific process by imagining humans as observers who catch intermittent glimpses of a grand chess game played by gods. Initial empirical patterns—such as observing that a single bishop stays on squares of the same color—eventually lead to deeper principles, such as discovering that bishops move strictly along diagonals. This shift demonstrates how science moves from cataloging surface regularities to identifying the underlying mechanisms that produce them. The real catalyst for progress occurs when an established framework fails to account for a sudden irregularity, such as castling. Because physics does not advance by endlessly re-verifying settled knowledge, researchers actively target these discrepancies. As Feynman explains, the phenomenon that fails to fit current expectations is the most valuable, as it directs inquiry toward previously overlooked rules. Scientific Revolutions and Conceptual Unification (1:14) Feynman extends the chess analogy to explain scientific revolutions, using the example of a bishop unexpectedly appearing on an opposite color. While this seems to violate established laws, further investigation reveals the mechanism of pawn promotion, prompting a revision of the observer's mental model. In physical science, thoroughly tested principles can similarly appear ironclad until an unforeseen anomaly reveals their boundaries and forces a conceptual reassessment. However, Feynman highlights a fundamental divergence between chess and nature. While learning extra rules like castling and promotion makes chess increasingly complex, physics trends toward underlying simplicity. Although probing new experimental domains initially inundates scientists with new particles and apparent disorder, periodic theoretical integrations unify these disparate phenomena into laws that are simpler than they initially appeared. Feynman concludes that while exploring unfamiliar domains temporarily increases apparent complexity, fundamental physics is defined by periodic syntheses that pull scattered phenomena into a more unified, elegant framework.

精炼阅读摘要

物理学家理查德·费曼（Richard Feynman）将探索自然规律的过程比作在不知晓规则的情况下观察众神的国际象棋对局；他指出，科学探索的关键动力在于追寻违背既有认知的反常现象，并通过周期性的理论整合揭示自然内在的简洁与统一。棋局隐喻与反常现象的驱动机制 (0:00) 费曼提出，探索自然就如同人类作为旁观者，在未被告知任何规则的情况下，断断续续地观察众神进行的一场宏大国际象棋对局。观察者最初可能只能瞥见棋盘的一角，并从中总结出表象经验，例如单象在棋盘上移动时始终保持在同色方格中；随着观察深入，人们发现了更深层的规则——象只能沿对角线斜行，这一规律解释了颜色不变的成因。这体现了科学从识别外在规律迈向阐释基本机制的演进路径。然而，当所有认知看似完备时，棋盘角落中可能会突然出现诸如“王车易位”（castling）这类完全不符合既有规则的新动作。费曼强调，基础物理学研究正是依靠反常现象推动的，科学家不会将职业生涯耗费在反复验证已知结论上。正如费曼所言：“不符合常规的事物才是最有趣的。”物理学的根本驱动力在于追踪那些与当前理论预期相悖的异常现象。认知危机与理论深化 (1:14) 费曼进一步借由棋局阐述科学革命的产生方式。当观察者长期见证象沿对角线移动并始终处于相同底色后，该规律会成为公认的事实；但当棋盘上意外出现一枚改变底色的象时，原有的理论便遭遇冲击。唯有经过更深入的调查，观察者才会揭开其完整机制：原先的象已被吃掉，而是一只走到底线的小兵完成了“升变”（promotion），成为异色格上的新象。这一过程表明，物理定律在经过广泛检验后看似牢不可破，但不可预见的新特例终将暴露其局限性，从而促使研究人员查明反常现象背后的具体触发条件，并建立覆盖面更广的深层规则。国际象棋与物理法则的本质差异 (1:14) 费曼强调，国际象棋与基础物理学之间存在一个决定性的差异。在国际象棋中，增加王车易位或兵的升变等特殊规则只会让规则手册变得愈发复杂繁琐；然而，自然法则却表现出一种追求简约的本质倾向。尽管人类在涉足前沿实验领域时，常常会遭遇大量新粒子和新现象的涌现，使物理规律在初期显得异常杂乱复杂，但科学史上的周期性突破总能对这些发现进行综合。费曼指出，科学体系会经历周期性的整合，将纷繁的现象归纳为统一的规律，最终呈现出比以往更加简洁的基础图景。费曼的论述表明，物理学的演进不仅依赖于对已知规则的经验归纳，更在于以反常现象为切入点打破固有范式；与人为设定的复杂博弈体系不同，自然科学探索的终极趋势是通过周期性的统一整合，将看似杂乱的新证据归结为更简洁的客观规律。

Detailed notes — zh

## Background 该视频由 YouTube 频道 defjam99b 于 2007 年 2 月 21 日发布。视频简介指出，内容围绕理查德·费曼（Richard Feynman）探讨理性科学方法、认知渐进、科学革命以及王车易位等现象展开。 ## TL;DR 费曼将人类探索物理定律的过程比作旁观诸神下国际象棋：人们只能偶尔窥探棋盘一隅，通过观察主教走对角线等现象逐步总结表象规律，并随着认识深化理解其背后机理。当出现王车易位或兵升变导致主教看似变色等反常现象时，既有认知便会被打破，从而推动理论革命。费曼指出物理学与国际象棋的关键不同在于，象棋规则随着特例增加而愈发繁琐，而物理学在探索广阔未知领域后，总会迎来深层的理论整合与大一统，让最终的底层法则比表面看起来更加简洁优美。 ## Atmosphere & style 费曼的讲述生动形象、举重若轻，散发着他标志性的好奇心与哲学洞察力。通过充满趣味的棋局比喻，他将高深抽象的科学认识论化繁为简，叙事层层递进、引人入胜。观众在聆听时能深切感受到他对未知反常现象的兴奋之情，以及对自然法则最终走向简洁大一统的美学震撼。 ## Bulletin - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) 费曼将人类探索物理定律的过程比作旁观诸神的国际象棋对弈，科学家只能通过局部的零散观察来逆向推导背后的运行规则。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 科学研究的最核心驱动力在于“不符合预期的异常现象”，相比验证已知的规律，物理学家对理论破缺与反常现象更感兴趣。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 国际象棋与真实物理定律的本质区别在于，前者规则随着特例打补丁而愈发琐碎，而物理学在经历拓展后总会通过理论大统一展现出更简洁优雅的底层机制。 ## Key takeaways - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) 费曼用诸神下国际象棋作比喻，说明人类探索自然定律时往往只能观察到宇宙的局部与片刻。 - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) 观察者最初可能只发现主教停留在同色格的表象规律，随后才认知到它沿对角线移动的深层机理。 - [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) 科学认知遵循从发现表象定律到揭示更深层本质的演进跃迁过程。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 类似“王车易位”的意外走法代表了超出既有认知框架的突发反常现象。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 物理学家最痴迷的往往不是已有验证的吻合理论，而是那些打破预期的异常现象。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 主教看似改变颜色的反常，促使观察者发现小兵冲到底线升变的新规则，对应科学革命对既有教条的打破与拓展。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 既有规律通常在长期内精准有效，直到微小细节破绽迫使科学家探究其适用的边界条件。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 国际象棋的规则随着引入特例而显得更为琐碎复杂，而物理学则具备独特的整合与统一能力。 - [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 虽然物理学不断拓展到更宽广的未知领域并引入新现象，但其周期性的大一统理论最终往往比先前的表象更加简洁深刻。 ## Detailed walkthrough ### [00:00](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=0s) 国际象棋的比喻与基本物理定律的探索理查德·费曼（Richard Feynman）用一个非常生动有趣的类比，来解释人类试图理解自然界的过程。他让大家想象一下，诸神正在进行一场宏大的博弈，比如一场国际象棋比赛，而作为人类的我们并不知道这场游戏的规则。我们所被允许做的，仅仅是从旁观察棋盘——哪怕只是偶尔看上一眼，或者仅仅窥见棋盘的一隅。通过这些极其有限的观察，我们尝试去推导和拼凑出这盘棋的运行规则，弄清楚各种棋子究竟是如何移动的。在观察了一段时间后，人们可能会总结出第一条经验规律：例如，当棋盘上只有一个主教（bishop）时，这个主教似乎永远只停留在同一种颜色的格子里。过了一段时间，观察者进一步发现了更深层的规律——主教其实是沿着斜线移动的。这一新发现立刻解释了此前注意到的现象：为什么它总能保持在同一种颜色上。费曼指出，这恰恰对应了科学探索中的认知跃进：“And that would be analogous to we discover one law and then later find a deeper understanding of it.” 我们先是发现了一条表象定律，随后又通过更本质的规律对其达成了更深入的理解。 ```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: 从观察到物理统一的认知演进 accDescr: 展示人类通过观察棋局推导规则、遭遇反常现象，并在物理学中最终实现深层统一的过程。 subgraph S1["初步观察与深层理解"] A["观察现象：主教始终保持同一格子颜色"] --> B["发现深层机制：主教沿着对角线移动"] end subgraph S2["反常现象与科学革命"] B --> C["遭遇未知现象：王车易位 (Castling)"] C --> D["既有规律被打破：主教改变了颜色？"] D --> E["揭示真正机制：兵到底线升变 (Pawn Promotion)"] end subgraph S3["物理学的大一统"] E --> F["经验范围向未知领域不断拓展"] F --> G["理论大整合与大一统：规律变得更简洁深刻"] end ``` ### [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) 科学革命、破缺现象与物理学的大一统当人们以为自己已经掌握了所有规则、一切看起来都很完备顺畅时，意外往往会突如其来。在棋盘的某个角落，可能会发生完全出乎意料的奇异现象，例如“王车易位”（castling）。费曼借此强调了基础物理学的核心精神：物理学家真正痴迷的从来不是那些已经被验证吻合的事物，而是无法理解的反常结果。“The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting, the part that doesn't go according to what you expected.” 那些打破既有预期、与现有认知不符的部分，才是科学探索中最有价值的驱动力。物理学中也常常发生颠覆性的革命。如果大家长期以来都坚信“主教永远走同色格且只走对角线”，公认这是铁律，结果某天突然在一局棋里发现主教竟然变了颜色。经过进一步探究，人们才会揭示出背后隐藏的新可能：原来之前的某个主教已经被吃掉了，而对方的一个小兵（pawn）一路冲到底线完成了“升变”，换成了一个新的主教。现实中的物理定律也是如此运作：规律在很长一段时间内精准有效，直到某个微小的细节破绽证明旧理论存在局限，迫使科学家去深入探查其边界条件，从而获得更底层的机制解释。在最后，费曼辨析了国际象棋与物理学的一个关键区别： - **国际象棋的规则**：随着对特例（如王车易位、兵的升变）的深入了解，规则看起来是在不断打补丁、变得越来越复杂琐碎。 - **物理学的自然法则**：虽然伴随经验拓展到更广阔狂野的未知领域，我们发现了更多粒子和新现象，使得表面上看起来纷繁复杂，但物理学最奇妙之处在于周期性的理论整合与统一。 - **终极的美感**：“Every once in a while we have these integrations in which everything is pulled together in a unification, which it turns out to be simpler than it looked before.” 最终被提炼出来的核心法则，反而比此前零散的表象更加简洁与优美。 ## Notable quotes > [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting, the part that doesn't go according to what you expected. — Richard Feynman > [01:04](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4&t=64s) Every once in a while we have these integrations in which everything is pulled together in a unification, which it turns out to be simpler than it looked before. — Richard Feynman ## Mentioned Richard Feynman ## Video description Richard Feynman on the rational scientific method; increments and revolutions and castling. [Source](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o1dgrvlWML4)

Source quotes

[1:04] Richard Feynman: The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting, the part that doesn't go according to what you expected. [1:04] Richard Feynman: Every once in a while we have these integrations in which everything is pulled together in a unification, which it turns out to be simpler than it looked before.

Source quotes

[0:00] Richard Feynman: The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting.

Original transcript

[0:00] One way that's kind of a fun analogy to try to get some idea of what we're doing and try to understand nature Just imagine that the gods are playing some great... game like chess, let's say a chess game. And you don't know the rules of the game. But you're allowed to look at the board, at least from time to time, and in a little corner, perhaps. And from these observations, you try to figure out what the rules are of the game. What? the rules of the pieces moving. You might discover after a bit, for example, that when there's only one bishop around on the board, that the bishop maintains its color. Later on, you might discover the law for the bishop as it moves on a diagonal, which would explain the law that you understood before, that it maintains its color. And that would be analogous to we discover one law and then later find a deeper understanding of it. Thank you. uh, Then... Things can happen. Everything's going good. You got all the laws. It looks very good. And then all of a sudden, some strange phenomenon occurs in some corner. So you begin to investigate that to look for it. It's castling, something you didn't expect. We're always, by the way, in a fundamental physics, always trying to investigate those things in which we don't understand the conclusions. We're not trying to check all the time our conclusions. We have to check them enough. We're okay. The thing that doesn't fit is the thing that's the most interesting. the part that doesn't go according to what you expected. in Also, we could have revolutions in physics. After you've been noticed that the bishops maintain their color and they go along the diagonals and so on, for such a long time, and everybody knows that that's true. then you suddenly discover one day in some chess game that the bishop doesn't maintain its color. It changes its color. Only later do you discover... a new possibility that the bishop is captured and that a pawn went all the way down to the queen's end to produce a new bishop. That can happen, but you didn't know it. And so it's very analogous to... the way our laws are. They sometimes look positive. They keep on working, and all of a sudden, some little gimmick shows that they're wrong, and then we have to investigate the conditions under which this Bishop chains of colour happen. and so forth, and gradually learned the new rule. That explains it more deeply. Unlike the chess game, though, So In the case of the chess game, the rules become more complicated as you go along. But in the physics, When you discover... new things it looks more simple It appears on the whole to be more complicated because we learn about a greater experience. That is we learn about more particles and new things. And so the laws look complicated again. But if you realize all the time what's kind of wonderful, it is that we expand our experience into wilder and wilder regions of experience, Every once in a while we have these integrations in which everything is pulled together in a unification. which it turns out to be simpler than it looked before.