Apple and GM Limit Product Lifespans to Force Repeat Purchases

Veritasium

From the Phoebus Cartel to modern smartphones, manufacturers intentionally shorten product lifespans and manipulate design trends to guarantee continuous consumer demand.

AI-assisted summary of This is why we can't have nice things — original source. Check the original for full context.

Source published: 2021-03-26

Key ideas

The 1924 Phoebus Cartel systematically forced lightbulb lifespans down from over 2,000 hours to exactly 1,000 hours, imposing heavy financial fines on manufacturers who produced longer-lasting bulbs. (3:01)
During the Great Depression, planned obsolescence was advocated as an economic salvation measure, with proposals urging governments to legally destroy expired goods to sustain manufacturing jobs. (8:42)
General Motors pioneered dynamic obsolescence in the 1920s through annual cosmetic and color changes, reducing average American car ownership lifespans from five years in 1934 to two years by 1955. (12:08)
Modern consumer electronics rely on sealed hardware and psychological styling cycles to drive repeat purchases, though modern solid-state LEDs demonstrate that true technological breakthroughs can overcome artificial durability limits. (14:07)

Detailed notes

## Background Published on March 26, 2021, by Derek Muller on the YouTube channel Veritasium, this video examines why everyday goods such as light bulbs, printers, and smartphones are not built to last. According to the page description, the piece investigates planned obsolescence and why consumer products seem intentionally degraded rather than made better.

## TL;DR Starting at California's Centennial Light—an incandescent bulb that has burned for over 120 years—Derek Muller unpacks how the Phoebus Cartel secretly conspired in 1924 to cut bulb lifespans down to 1,000 hours to protect recurring sales. The narrative traces this deliberate engineering sabotage from historical cartel fines to modern consumer frustrations, including sealed iPod batteries, throttled iPhone performance, and nylon stockings engineered to ladder. Muller examines how planned obsolescence evolved from an economic recovery proposal during the Great Depression into General Motors' psychological model of annual cosmetic restyling, before concluding that solid-state LEDs finally broke the cycle by delivering genuinely long-lasting, efficient illumination.

## Atmosphere & style The presentation blends an investigative documentary feel with Muller's trademark curiosity and analytical candor, beginning with a personal admission of skepticism that gives way to historical proof. It carries an undercurrent of wry consumer disillusionment, using archival film clips, patent records, and corporate quotes to expose deliberate industrial sabotage. The pacing moves smoothly from mechanical physics to corporate history and modern product design, leaving the viewer feeling enlightened, mildly indignant about commercial manipulation, and appreciative of genuine technological breakthroughs like the LED.

## Bulletin - [03:01](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=181s) The 1924 Phoebus Cartel systematically forced lightbulb lifespans down from over 2,000 hours to exactly 1,000 hours, imposing heavy financial fines on manufacturers who produced longer-lasting bulbs. - [08:42](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=522s) During the Great Depression, planned obsolescence was advocated as an economic salvation measure, with proposals urging governments to legally destroy expired goods to sustain manufacturing jobs. - [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) General Motors pioneered dynamic obsolescence in the 1920s through annual cosmetic and color changes, reducing average American car ownership lifespans from five years in 1934 to two years by 1955. - [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) Modern consumer electronics rely on sealed hardware and psychological styling cycles to drive repeat purchases, though modern solid-state LEDs demonstrate that true technological breakthroughs can overcome artificial durability limits.

## Key takeaways - [00:02](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=2s) The Centennial Light in California has burned continuously for over 120 years and more than a million hours, disproving the idea that long-lasting incandescent bulbs were purely mythical. - [01:39](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=99s) Standard incandescent bulbs operate inefficiently as heat radiators, converting less than 5% of electrical energy into visible light while generating temperatures up to 2,800 Kelvin. - [02:38](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=158s) By the early 1920s, tungsten filament improvements enabled standard commercial bulbs to last 2,000 to 2,500 hours, threatening lamp manufacturers with falling replacement demand. - [03:01](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=181s) In December 1924, major international lighting manufacturers met in Geneva to establish the Phoebus Cartel, standardizing bulb lifespans to a mandatory maximum of 1,000 hours. - [03:45](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=225s) The Phoebus Cartel enforced compliance through centralized test facilities, fining members up to 200 Swiss Francs per 1,000 units if their bulbs exceeded 3,000 hours. - [04:17](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=257s) Cartel-mandated engineering sabotage successfully reduced average bulb lifespans to 1,205 hours by 1934, resulting in a 25% sales spike between 1926 and 1930. - [07:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=427s) Early twentieth-century cartel practices laid the foundation for modern hardware obsolescence, exemplified by Apple's non-replaceable iPod batteries and subsequent iPhone processor throttling. - [08:42](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=522s) Bernard London's 1932 pamphlet proposed government-mandated expiration dates and destruction for manufactured goods to fight Great Depression unemployment. - [09:45](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=585s) The 1951 film 'The Man in the White Suit' reflected societal fears that truly indestructible consumer goods would destroy industrial jobs and entire manufacturing sectors. - [10:55](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=655s) Manufacturers deliberately degraded early nylon stockings after their extreme initial durability threatened repeat retail purchases. - [11:26](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=686s) Right-to-repair legislation across the US and EU attempts to counter artificial hardware obsolescence by requiring accessible parts and diagnostic manuals for independent repair. - [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) Henry Ford's durable, unchanging Model T saturated the automobile market by 1920, leaving over 55% of American households with cars and stalling vehicle sales. - [13:02](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=782s) DuPont and General Motors countered market saturation by introducing yearly styling and paint updates, creating 'dynamic obsolescence' to make older vehicles appear socially out-of-date. - [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) Modern tech companies emulate fashion industry cycles by oscillating between aesthetic form factors to trigger psychological obsolescence rather than substantive utility gains. - [15:13](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=913s) Solid-state LED lighting represents genuine technological obsolescence, reducing power consumption by 90% and outlasting incandescent bulbs by up to 50 times.

## Detailed walkthrough ### [00:02](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=2s) The Longest-Burning Bulb in the World

Standing outside Livermore Fire Station No. 6 in California, Derek Muller introduces a classic consumer myth that turned out to have real historical truth behind it. Inside the station hangs the Centennial Light, the longest continuously burning incandescent light bulb in the world. Manufactured by hand around 1901, soon after commercial electric lighting emerged, it has been running almost non-stop for over 120 years, clocking more than a million hours of operation. It lacks a conventional light switch and relies on a dedicated backup battery and generator so that it never shuts off.

```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: Centennial Light Operational Factors accDescr: Factors that contributed to the Centennial Light lasting over 120 years. subgraph Design["Bulb Attributes"] A["Handmade pre-cartel design"] B["Thick carbon filament"] end subgraph Conditions["Operating Environment"] C["Low power draw: 4 to 5 Watts"] D["Always left on: no thermal cycling"] end subgraph Outcome["Result"] E["1,000,000+ hours of continuous operation"] end Design --> Outcome Conditions --> Outcome ```

For years, Muller had dismissed rumors of early, everlasting light bulbs as an absurd urban legend. A friend had insisted someone invented an eternal bulb decades ago but was suppressed because an everlasting light bulb makes for an unviable business model with zero repeat customers. Muller initially reasoned that free market incentives would drive any company with an everlasting bulb to undercut competitors, command exorbitant premium prices, and reap immense profits. Reflecting on his past skepticism, Muller admits: “I just couldn't imagine that we had better light bulbs in the past and then intentionally made them worse, but it turns out I was wrong.”

- **Location:** Livermore Fire Station No. 6, California - **Service run:** Continuous operation since 1901 (over 120 years and 1,000,000+ hours) - **Power setup:** No wall switch, wired to a backup battery and generator

---

[01:39](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=99s) The Physics of Incandescence and the Race for Longevity

Making a viable electric light was an engineering ordeal. Standard incandescent bulbs work by passing an electrical current through a filament until it gets hot enough to glow. Thermodynamically, they are terrible at producing illumination: less than 5% of the electrical energy is converted into visible light, while the remaining 95% is emitted as radiant heat. Consequently, these devices function far more like heat lamps that generate light purely as an incidental byproduct. Operating temperatures reach up to 2,800 Kelvin—roughly half the temperature of the surface of the sun—hot enough that most engineering materials will instantly melt or spontaneously combust in the presence of air.

To overcome this, Warren De la Rue conceived placing the filament inside an evacuated vacuum glass envelope in the 1840s to strip away reactive oxygen. Thomas Edison built on this in 1879 with a carbonized cotton thread filament that managed to burn for 14 hours. Other inventors experimented with platinum and various carbonized organic fibers, gradually pushing durability upward. The critical breakthrough arrived with tungsten filaments, whose exceptionally high melting point enabled greater stability and brightness. By the early 1920s, ordinary commercial bulb lifespans reached roughly 2,000 hours, with premium models running upwards of 2,500 hours. Yet right at the moment when materials science was poised to deliver even longer-lasting bulbs, the engineering direction reversed.

- **Efficiency:** Less than 5% light, over 95% waste heat - **Filament temperature:** Up to 2,800 K (approx. half the surface temperature of the sun) - **1840s:** Warren De la Rue develops the vacuum-bulb concept - **1879:** Thomas Edison creates a 14-hour carbonized cotton filament - **Early 1920s:** Tungsten bulbs routinely achieve lifespans between 2,000 and 2,500 hours

---

[03:01](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=181s) The Phoebus Cartel and the 1,000-Hour Limit

Just before Christmas in December 1924, senior executives from the world's dominant lighting manufacturers gathered for a secret meeting in Geneva, Switzerland. The attendees included delegates from Philips (the Netherlands), Osram (Germany), Tokyo Electric (Japan), International General Electric (United States), and Associated Electrical Industries (United Kingdom). Together, they established the Phoebus Cartel, christened after Phoebus, the Greek god of light. By the 1920s, consolidation had swallowed hundreds of smaller lighting workshops, leaving these giant corporations dominant in their respective geographical spheres. However, the companies faced an existential threat: their own durable engineering. In 1923, Osram had shipped 63 million bulbs, but in 1924 sales cratered to 28 million because existing bulbs simply did not burn out fast enough.

```mermaid flowchart LR accTitle: Phoebus Cartel Enforcement Loop accDescr: Process of testing bulbs and assessing fines under the Phoebus Cartel. subgraph Testing["Compliance Testing"] A["Cartel member factories"] -->|"Submit samples"| B["Standard test stands"] B -->|"Evaluate burn time"| C{"Lifespan check"} end subgraph Penalties["Enforcement"] C -->|"> 1,000 hours"| D["Progressive fines"] C -->|"> 3,000 hours"| E["Fine: 200 Swiss Francs per 1,000 bulbs"] end ```

To rescue falling sales volumes, the cartel members signed an agreement to slash standard incandescent lifespans down to exactly 1,000 hours, effectively cutting life expectancy in half. To ensure no member cheated by quietly producing longer-lasting, superior products to win market share, the cartel enforced mandatory compliance testing. Member factories had to mail production samples to a central testing facility where rows of bulbs were burned on massive test stands. If a factory’s bulbs significantly exceeded 1,000 hours, the company was penalized on a sliding scale. When lifespans passed 3,000 hours, the cartel slapped the offending manufacturer with a fine of 200 Swiss Francs for every 1,000 units sold.

Cartel engineers were tasked with actively degrading bulb durability: modifying filament geometries, employing thinner leads, and adopting materials prone to quicker failure. The sabotage succeeded. Between 1926 and 1930, cartel members saw aggregate sales surge by 25%, and by 1934 the average lifespan of their light bulbs was pulled down to 1,205 hours. Manufacturing costs dropped, yet retail prices remained stationary, widening corporate profit margins. Publicly, the cartel disguised the conspiracy under the guise of technical standardization and energy efficiency—creating the standardized screw thread (Edison base) still found in light sockets worldwide. Derek Muller cuts through their justification: “But all evidence points to the cartels being motivated by profits and increased sales, not by what was best for consumers.”

The Centennial Light avoided this artificial degradation because it was manufactured decades before the 1924 cartel was formed. Furthermore, it operates under very gentle electrical stress: drawing only 4 to 5 watts as a firehouse nightlight to stop firefighters from tripping in the dark, and running continuously, which shields it from the damaging thermal shock of repeated cooling, warming, expansion, and contraction. The Phoebus Cartel had planned to govern the lighting industry until at least 1955, but external competition, internal cheating, and ultimately the disruptions of World War II tore the cartel apart in the late 1930s.

- **Founding:** Geneva, Switzerland, December 1924 - **Members:** Philips, Osram, Tokyo Electric, International General Electric, Associated Electrical Industries - **Mandate:** Cut bulb lifespan to 1,000 hours - **Penalties:** Up to 200 Swiss Francs per 1,000 units for bulbs lasting >3,000 hours - **Outcome:** Sales jumped 25% within four years; lifespans dropped to 1,205 hours by 1934 - **Cartel demise:** Fractured in the late 1930s and terminated by World War II

---

[07:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=427s) Modern Planned Obsolescence: From iPods to iPhones

Though the Phoebus Cartel dissolved, its commercial blueprint was institutionalized across twentieth- and twenty-first-century consumer electronics as planned obsolescence. Derek Muller points to Casey Neistat’s breakthrough viral stunt in 2003 as a landmark moment that brought modern planned obsolescence into public awareness. Neistat called Apple customer support after the battery in his 18-month-old first-generation iPod died. Because Apple had sealed the battery inside the device and offered no official replacement parts, customer service representative Ryan informed him: “18 months, okay, it's past it year, which basically means there'll be a charge of $255 plus a mailing fee to send it to us to refurbish, to correct it. But at that price, you might as well go get a new one.” Neistat stenciled protest messages across New York City billboards, sparking widespread outrage and a class-action lawsuit that Apple settled out of court.

The practice did not stop there. In 2017, Apple introduced an iOS software update that caused older iPhones to throttle processor clock speeds, resulting in sluggish app launches and unexpected system shutdowns. Apple defended the throttling as an engineering measure to prevent aging lithium-ion batteries from triggering sudden power cutoffs, arguing it extended overall device longevity. However, critics pointed out that throttling would be completely unnecessary if users were given access to inexpensive, user-replaceable batteries. A series of legal actions culminating in 2020 resulted in Apple paying hundreds of millions of dollars in regulatory fines and class-action settlements—amounts that are nonetheless eclipsed by the immense recurring hardware revenues generated by shortening device life cycles.

- **2003:** Casey Neistat’s viral campaign against the non-replaceable iPod battery ($255 repair quote on an out-of-warranty device) - **2017:** Apple rolls out iOS power-management update that throttles CPU speeds on older iPhones - **2020:** Apple concludes multi-hundred-million-dollar legal settlements regarding device throttling

---

[08:42](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=522s) Obsolescence as Economic Salvation: Bernard London and "The Man in the White Suit"

```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: Concept of Mandatory Planned Obsolescence accDescr: Flow of Bernard London's proposed government-enforced obsolescence cycle. A["Government sets mandatory product lifespan"] --> B["Consumer purchases and uses good within legal term"] B --> C["Allotted expiration date reached"] C --> D["Product declared 'legally dead'"] D --> E["Product seized and destroyed by government agency"] E --> F["Factories manufacture replacements, creating continuous employment"] ```

During the depth of the Great Depression in the 1930s, when approximately one out of every four American workers was unemployed, planned obsolescence was framed not as corporate greed, but as an economic duty. Real estate broker Bernard London published a 1932 pamphlet titled *Ending the Depression Through Planned Obsolescence*, arguing that the only way to restart stagnant industrial production was to legally forbid products from lasting too long. London proposed:

> “I would have the government assign a lease of life to shoes, and homes, and machines when they are first created and they would be sold and used within the term of their existence, definitely known by the consumer. After the allotted time had expired, these things would be legally dead and would be controlled by the duly appointed governmental agency and destroyed if there is widespread unemployment.”

The pervasive societal dread that technological efficiency and overly durable products would eliminate human jobs was captured in the Oscar-nominated 1951 British satirical film *The Man in the White Suit*. In the movie, an idealistic laboratory scientist develops an indestructible polymer thread that resists all dirt, tearing, and mechanical wear:

> “I think I've succeeded in the copolymerization of amino acid residues and carbohydrate molecules, both containing ionic groups. It's really perfectly simple.”

The fabric cannot even absorb dye, forcing the inventor to tailor it into a bright, luminous white suit. While celebrated initially, his scientific triumph turns into an industrial nightmare. Factory owners realize demand for textiles will vanish forever once every citizen owns a single suit, while textile workers realize perpetual clothing will eliminate their livelihoods. An elderly washerwoman confronts the scientist, asking: “Why can't you scientists leave things alone? What about my better washing when there's no washing to do?” In the film's climax, management and labor join forces in a mob to hunt down the scientist and destroy both him and his eternal fabric—a narrative, Muller notes, that drew inspiration from actual historical events.

- **1930s context:** Approximately 25% unemployment rate during the Great Depression - **1932:** Bernard London publishes *Ending the Depression Through Planned Obsolescence* proposing mandatory, legally enforced destruction dates for manufactured goods - **1951 film:** *The Man in the White Suit* (nominated for Best Screenplay Academy Award), satirizing industrial panic over an indestructible, unstainable fiber

[10:55](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=655s) Fragile Nylon, Right to Repair, and Psychological Obsolescence

When the synthetic fiber nylon emerged in the 1940s to replace silk in stockings, it proved astonishingly tough. The product was so durable that it triggered an immediate consumer sensation, leading to literal riots as women scrambled to buy pairs. However, manufacturers soon realized they had engineered something that lasted far too long for a sustainable repeat-purchase business. Taking inspiration directly from the playbook of the Phoebus Cartel, the companies ordered their scientists and engineers to intentionally weaken the material and degrade its lifespan, ensuring that stockings would run and force women back to store counters.

In recent years, consumers have mounted a legislative counter-offensive against such deliberate engineering failures. Across the European Union and in more than 25 American states, lawmakers have introduced right-to-repair bills aimed at forcing manufacturers to design accessible hardware. These laws would require companies to supply repair manuals, diagnostic tools, and authentic replacement components to the public, allowing consumers to swap out worn batteries or cracked screens at independent third-party shops without voiding original warranties. Yet even if right-to-repair statutes succeed everywhere, Derek Muller warns that artificial obsolescence will not disappear: “Sadly, no, because there is one last thing manufacturers can use to make their products obsolete, which is you.”

- In the 1940s, nylon stockings were an overnight hit because of their durability, sparking riots among eager shoppers before manufacturers intentionally compromised the fiber. - Right-to-repair proposals in the EU and over 25 US states seek to mandate parts availability and third-party repair access without penalty to warranties.

[12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) Henry Ford, General Motors, and the Invention of Dynamic Obsolescence

When Henry Ford introduced the Model T in 1908, he treated it as an unpretentious, utilitarian workhorse designed to endure indefinitely without unnecessary cosmetic meddling. Ford championed the philosophy of long-lasting, uniform production, declaring in 1922: “We want the man who buys one of our cars never to have to buy another, we never make an improvement that renders any previous model obsolete.” But that durability created an inevitable business bottleneck. By 1920, roughly 55% of American households owned an automobile, essentially saturating the pool of buyers who could afford one. An economic downturn that same year compounded the problem, sending sales plunging across both Ford and its primary competitor, General Motors.

```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: The Shift from Utilitarian Manufacturing to Dynamic Obsolescence accDescr: Diagram tracing Ford's durable Model T market saturation to DuPont and GM's invention of yearly cosmetic changes.

subgraph Saturation ["Market Saturation (1908–1920)"] A["Ford Model T Launched (1908)"] --> B["Built to last & black only"] B --> C["55% of US families own a car by 1920"] C --> D["Market saturates; sales plummet"] end

subgraph DynamicObsolescence ["Dynamic Obsolescence (1921–1955)"] E["DuPont acquires GM stake (1921)"] --> F["Annual color & styling revisions (1924)"] F --> G["Old models look visibly outdated"] G --> H["Ownership cycle shrinks from 5 years to 2"] end

D --> E ```

Change arrived in 1921 when the chemical and paint manufacturer DuPont acquired a controlling stake in General Motors and began experimenting with colorful automotive finishes. Ford had famously remarked that customers could have any color they liked as long as it was black; GM broke that mold by releasing multi-colored vehicles in 1924. GM quickly turned this novelty into an institutional strategy by introducing new exterior colors and minor styling tweaks every single model year. The goal was twofold: make the utilitarian Model T look antique by comparison, and deliberately make older GM cars look out of fashion so owners felt compelled to trade up.

Harley Earl, GM’s influential head of design, was remarkably blunt about this psychological strategy, calling it dynamic obsolescence. Looking back on the shift, Earl said: “Our big job is to hasten obsolescence. In 1934, the average car ownership span was five years. Now, which was 1955, it is two years. When it is one year, we will have a perfect score.” By orchestrating continuous aesthetic dissatisfaction, General Motors rose to become the most valuable corporation on the planet, capturing half of all annual vehicle purchases in the United States.

- Henry Ford's Model T was intended as an everlasting, unchanging machine, but high adoption saturated the market by 1920. - In 1921, DuPont took control of GM and introduced automotive paint colors, rolling out colored production lines in 1924. - Harley Earl's design strategy successfully shrank the average American car ownership span from five years in 1934 to two years by 1955.

[14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) Apple, Fashion Cycles, and Genuine Technological Progress (The LED)

Today, modern tech titans rely heavily on GM's playbook. Apple, the world’s most valuable enterprise, continually recycles the same formula of cosmetic reinvention: rolling out new case colors, minor casing modifications, and incremental tech upgrades every autumn. This approach borrows wholesale from the fashion industry, where functional innovation is scarce and designers must fabricate artificial urgency by generating seasonal trends that expire within months. Once designers exhaust their cosmetic variations, they inevitably cycle back to styles from decades prior.

The iPhone exhibits this identical circularity: early generations featured curved borders, followed by sharp squared-off edges, which gave way to rounded perimeters once more, before returning to flat, squared edges. Derek highlights the psychological trick driving this treadmill: “I think the point is that with design and styling, there is no best, there's only different, which is apparently enough to remind us that we don't have the latest and greatest, and so we have to rush out and keep buying.”

Amid these manufactured cycles, genuine technological obsolescence stands out as the only kind worth championing, and lighting provides the ultimate demonstration. For nearly a century, incandescent technology stagnated with minimal improvement. Over the past two decades, however, lighting leaped forward to compact fluorescents and subsequently to solid-state LEDs. Modern LED bulbs consume just one-tenth the power of their incandescent ancestors while lasting 10 to 50 times longer. Because an LED bulb can outlive a typical family's tenure in a home, consumer technology has finally delivered what is practically an everlasting light bulb.

- Apple follows automotive and fashion playbooks by pairing incremental performance changes with annual aesthetic updates and color shifts. - The iPhone has repeatedly rotated between squared-off and rounded edge designs across different product generations. - LEDs consume 90% less energy than traditional incandescent bulbs and operate between 10 and 50 times longer, making bulb replacement a rarity.

[16:05](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=965s) Sponsor: Overcoming Geo-Restrictions with NordVPN

Closing the episode, Derek Muller introduces the video's sponsor, NordVPN, drawing a comparison between artificial market barriers and outdated television licensing. Derek mentions his appearance on the British panel show *QI*, noting that while the program streams on Netflix, licensing agreements limit viewing strictly to United Kingdom IP addresses. He argues that regional broadcasting borders represent an antiquated distribution model that clashes with the seamless, borderless reality of the internet.

NordVPN allows users to bypass these geographic roadblocks by routing their web traffic through UK-based servers or locations across the globe. Alongside access to international streaming libraries, the service provides security tools such as double IP masking and maintains a strict no-logs policy, preventing internet service providers and data brokers from tracking, harvesting, or selling user activity. Viewers can claim a discounted two-year subscription with an additional month free using the code `VERITASIUM` at nordvpn.com/veritasium, backed by a 30-day money-back guarantee.

## Notable quotes > [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) We want the man who buys one of our cars never to have to buy another, we never make an improvement that renders any previous model obsolete. — Henry Ford

> [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) I think the point is that with design and styling, there is no best, there's only different, which is apparently enough to remind us that we don't have the latest and greatest, and so we have to rush out and keep buying. — Derek Muller

> [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) Our big job is to hasten obsolescence. In 1934, the average car ownership span was five years. Now, which was 1955, it is two years. When it is one year, we will have a perfect score. — Harley Earl

## Mentioned Apple, Associated Electrical Industries, Bernard London, Casey Neistat, Centennial Light, Derek Muller, DuPont, General Motors, Harley Earl, Henry Ford, International General Electric, Model T, NordVPN, Osram, Petr Lebedev, Philips, Phoebus Cartel, QI, The Man in the White Suit, Thomas Edison, Tokyo Electric, Warren De la Rue

## Video description This video is about stuff: light bulbs, printers, phones and why they aren't better. Go to https://NordVPN.com/veritasium and use code VERITASIUM to get a 2-year plan plus 1 additional month with a huge discount. It’s risk free with Nord’s 30 day money-back guarantee!

References: The Man in the White Suit — https://ve42.co/Suit

London, B. (1932). Ending the depression through planned obsolescence. — https://ve42.co/London32

Slade, G. (2009). Made to break: Technology and obsolescence in America. Harvard University Press — https://ve42.co/madetobreak

Krajewski, M. (2014). The great lightbulb conspiracy. IEEE spectrum, 51(10), 56-61. — https://ve42.co/Phoebus

Planet Money, The Phoebus Cartel - https://ve42.co/PMobs

The Light Bulb Conspiracy - https://youtu.be/e9xmn228HM0

Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Mac Malkawi, Oleksii Leonov, Michael Schneider, Jim Osmun, Tyson McDowell, Ludovic Robillard, jim buckmaster, fanime96, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Lyvann Ferrusca, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Joar Wandborg, Clayton Greenwell, Pindex, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev Animation by Ivy Tello Filmed by Derek Muller and Raquel Nuno Edited by Derek Muller Video supplied by Getty Images

Music by Jonny Hyman and from https://epidemicsound.com"Aquatic Planet", "Rhythm of Dreams", "Tread Lightly", "Unexpected Visitors", "Curved Mirrors" "Drunken Lullaby" "Fluorescent Lights"

Thumbnail by Raquel Nuno and Karri Denise

[Source](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE)

中文简报

苹果与通用汽车限制产品寿命以迫使重复购买从太阳神卡特尔到现代智能手机，制造商蓄意缩短产品寿命并操纵设计潮流，以确保源源不断的消费需求。德里克·穆勒（Derek Muller）从加利福尼亚州点亮已超过120年的“百年灯泡”切入，揭示了太阳神卡特尔（Phoebus Cartel）如何在1924年秘密共谋将灯泡寿命缩短至1000小时，以保护持续的销售收益。该叙事追溯了这种蓄意的工程破坏行为，从历史上卡特尔设立的严厉罚款，一直延伸到现代消费者的种种困扰，包括密封的iPod电池、被降速限制性能的iPhone以及故意设计成易脱丝的尼龙丝袜。穆勒剖析了计划性报废如何从大萧条时期的一项经济复苏提案，演变成通用汽车通过每年微调外观来引导消费的心理模式；他最后总结指出，固态LED通过提供真正持久且高效的照明，最终打破了这一循环。 1924年的太阳神卡特尔系统性地将灯泡寿命从2000多小时强制缩短至恰好1000小时，并对生产更耐用灯泡的制造商处以巨额罚款。 (3:01) 在大萧条时期，计划性报废被提倡为一种拯救经济的手段，当时有提案敦促政府依法销毁过期商品以维持制造业就业。 (8:42) 通用汽车在20世纪20年代开创了“动态报废”，通过每年的外观和颜色更新，使美国人平均持有汽车的时长从1934年的五年缩短至1955年的两年。 (12:08) 现代消费电子产品依靠密封硬件和心理外观迭代周期来拉动重复购买，但现代固态LED证明，真正的技术突破能够打破人为设定的耐用度限制。 (14:07)

Reading summary

Derek Muller demonstrates how industrial manufacturing shifted from durable engineering to planned obsolescence, evolving from secret cartels that physically degraded hardware into aesthetic and software strategies designed to ensure continuous consumer turnover. Industrial Cartels and Deliberate Material Degradation (3:01) The Centennial Light at Livermore Fire Station No. 6 has operated almost continuously since 1901, exceeding one million hours of service due to gentle four-to-five-watt operation and the absence of thermal cycling. By the early 1920s, commercial tungsten filaments routinely achieved operational lifespans between 2,000 and 2,500 hours. This engineering durability threatened sales volumes; for example, Osram's shipments dropped from 63 million units in 1923 to 28 million in 1924. To reverse falling demand, dominant manufacturers—including Philips, Osram, Tokyo Electric, International General Electric, and Associated Electrical Industries—formed the Phoebus Cartel in Geneva in December 1924. The cartel capped incandescent bulb lifespans at 1,000 hours, enforcing compliance through centralized testing stands and fining factories up to 200 Swiss Francs per 1,000 units for bulbs exceeding 3,000 hours. Cartel engineers shortened operational lives by thinning leads and altering filament geometries, successfully pulling average bulb lifespans down to 1,205 hours by 1934 while cartel sales rose 25% between 1926 and 1930. A similar engineering reversal occurred in the 1940s when manufacturers deliberately compromised the molecular strength of nylon stockings after initial versions proved too durable to sustain repeat customer purchases. Durability as an Economic Threat (8:42) During the Great Depression, when national unemployment approached 25%, planned obsolescence was proposed as an economic remedy to stimulate industrial activity. In his 1932 pamphlet, Ending the Depression Through Planned Obsolescence, real estate broker Bernard London advocated for legally mandated product lifespans. London proposed that once goods reached their government-assigned expiration date, they would be declared legally dead, seized by state agencies, and destroyed to force factory production and maintain steady employment. This societal anxiety that durable engineering destroys livelihoods was dramatized in the 1951 British satirical film The Man in the White Suit. In the movie, an inventor develops an indestructible, unstainable polymer fabric, only to be hunted by a united coalition of factory owners and textile workers who realize an eternal garment will permanently eliminate factory demand and laundry jobs. Muller notes that the satire reflected genuine historical tensions over technological durability displacing labor. Hardware Lock-In, Throttling, and Right to Repair (7:07) Modern technology firms substituted physical material sabotage with restricted modularity and software limitations. In 2003, creator Casey Neistat launched a public campaign after Apple quoted a $255 service fee to replace a dead battery on an 18-month-old first-generation iPod, noting that the cost encouraged buying an entirely new device instead of servicing the sealed unit. In 2017, Apple deployed an iOS update that throttled processor speeds on older iPhones. While Apple defended the measure as power management to prevent sudden shutdowns caused by aging lithium-ion batteries, critics highlighted that user-replaceable batteries would have preserved device performance. Legal challenges over device throttling culminated in 2020 settlements costing Apple hundreds of millions of dollars. To counter built-in product failure, lawmakers across the European Union and over 25 American states introduced right-to-repair statutes mandating access to official diagnostic software, manuals, and replacement parts. However, Muller argues that legal mandates granting repair access cannot dismantle obsolescence because manufacturers have pivoted to consumer psychology. Dynamic Obsolescence and Aesthetic Cycles (12:08) When physical limits are regulated, manufacturers turn to cosmetic differentiation. Henry Ford initially designed the Model T to endure indefinitely without cosmetic changes, declaring in 1922 that the company aimed for buyers never to replace their car. By 1920, 55% of American households owned an automobile, saturating demand. General Motors, influenced by its controlling shareholder DuPont, broke Ford's uniform model by offering colored paint finishes in 1924, instituting annual cosmetic revisions to make older vehicles appear outdated. Harley Earl, GM’s design chief, termed this dynamic obsolescence, driving the average American car ownership span down from five years in 1934 to two years by 1955. Modern electronics manufacturers mirror this automotive and fashion paradigm through annual aesthetic refreshes. Apple repeatedly shifts iPhone exterior geometries between squared and rounded edges alongside rotating color palettes, creating artificial urgency without substantive functional leaps. Genuine technological obsolescence, Muller notes, stands in contrast: solid-state LED bulbs consume roughly 90% less energy than early incandescent lamps while lasting 10 to 50 times longer, finally providing a functionally everlasting light source. While right-to-repair legislation addresses artificial hardware and software constraints, it cannot neutralize dynamic obsolescence. As long as industrial design relies on cosmetic updates and manufactured fashion cycles, consumer behavior remains the final mechanism companies exploit to render durable goods prematurely obsolete.

精炼阅读摘要

Derek Muller指出，耐用商品的生命周期缩短并非自然规律，而是厂商为了维持重复购买而刻意推行的计划性报废（planned obsolescence）；从硬件性能人为降级到制造心理过时，商业驱动往往凌驾于工程耐用性之上。百年灯泡与太阳神卡特尔的寿命限制 (0:02) 加利福尼亚州利弗莫尔6号消防局内挂有一颗自1901年手工制造、连续运行超过120年且累计逾100万小时的“百年灯泡”（Centennial Light）。该灯泡采用早期粗碳丝设计，依靠备用电池和发电机维持在4至5瓦的极低功耗下常亮，避免了频繁开关导致的冷热膨胀应力。白炽灯在热力学上效率低下，不到5%的电能转化为可见光，其余95%以上均为废热，灯丝工作温度高达2800开尔文。随着钨丝技术的成熟，20世纪20年代初普通商用灯泡的寿命已能稳定达到2000至2500小时，但工程进步随即遭到商业利益的遏制。太阳神卡特尔的寿命限制与技术倒退 (3:01) 1924年12月，飞利浦、欧司朗、东京电气、国际通用电气和英国联合电气工业在日内瓦秘密成立“太阳神卡特尔”（Phoebus Cartel）。此前因灯泡过于耐用，欧司朗的销量从1923年的6300万只暴跌至1924年的2800万只。为刺激销量，卡特尔将灯泡寿命强行削减至1000小时，要求各厂提交样品在测试台上检验，若寿命超过3000小时，厂商每售出1000只灯泡将被处以高达200瑞士法郎的罚款。工程师被迫通过采用更细导线和更脆弱材质来削弱耐用性；到1934年，灯泡平均寿命降至1205小时，而卡特尔成员在1926至1930年间的销量跃升了25%。尽管该组织打着技术标准化和提高能效的幌子，且最终在二战前夕解体，但其刻意降低耐用性的商业手段被广泛保留下来。硬件密封、软件降频与反向经济学 (7:07) 计划性报废随后向现代消费电子领域蔓延。2003年，Casey Neistat就第一代iPod内置不可更换电池提出抗议，当时苹果客服告知其超出1年保修期后的官方翻新费高达255美元加邮费，建议直接购买新品。2017年，苹果公司通过iOS更新对电池老化的旧款iPhone进行处理器降频，苹果辩称此举是为了防止老旧锂电池意外关机以延长设备寿命，但批评者指出若提供平价且易于更换的电池则无需降频；该争议最终导致苹果在2020年达成数亿美元的监管罚款与集体诉讼和解。在大萧条时期的1932年，伯纳德·伦敦（Bernard London）甚至在其倡议中提出由政府强制划定各类产品的法定报废期限，过期即由政府没收销毁，试图以此刺激生产与就业；1951年的讽刺电影《穿白西装的男人》（The Man in the White Suit）同样生动刻画了纺织业对永不磨损织物的群体恐慌。从尼龙降级到通用汽车的动态过时 (10:55) 除硬件设计外，厂商还通过干预材料与引导消费心理缩短产品周期。20世纪40年代尼龙丝袜问世初期因极其结实而引发抢购，但厂商意识到耐用材料会断绝回购，随后指令工程师故意削弱纤维强度。在立法层面，欧盟及美国超过25个州已提出“维修权”（Right to Repair）法案，强制要求厂商提供维修手册、诊断工具及正品配件，但Muller指出厂商仍能通过消费者心理制造过时。1908年亨利·福特推出黑色的Model T并坚持耐用与不改款理念，然而至1920年已有约55%的关国家庭拥有汽车，市场迅速饱和。美学循环与真正的技术过时 (14:07) 1921年杜邦收购通用汽车（GM）控股权后，于1924年推出多色车身，通用汽车设计主管哈利·厄尔（Harley Earl）确立了“动态过时”（dynamic obsolescence）策略，通过每年推出微调外观与新配色使旧款在外观上显出落伍感。厄尔直言其任务是加速产品报废，该策略将美国汽车的平均持有周期从1934年的5年压缩至1955年的2年。现代科技公司如苹果同样沿用该模式，通过频繁轮换圆润边缘与直角边缘、增添季节性外壳颜色等微调来唤起消费者的不满情绪。Muller认为，唯一值得称道的是真正的技术替代——固态LED照明较传统白炽灯节能90%且寿命延长10至50倍，才在客观上重新提供了近乎永久耐用的照明方案。无论是通过太阳神卡特尔的强制降级、现代电子产品的封闭设计，还是通用汽车确立的审美疲劳战术，消费主义长期依赖缩短寿命来维系商业增长。唯有在LED这类带来数量级能效与耐久度跃升的实质性技术革命面前，人为构筑的耐用性壁垒才会被真正打破。

Detailed notes — zh

## Background 该视频由著名科普频道 Veritasium（主讲人 Derek Muller）于 2021 年 3 月 26 日发布在 YouTube 平台。视频简介指出，本期节目探讨了诸如灯泡、打印机和智能手机等日常消费品为何未能变得更好、更耐用，并聚焦于背后的商业运作逻辑。 ## TL;DR 视频从加州消防局持续点亮逾 120 年的“百年灯泡”切入，揭露了工业史上臭名昭著的“太阳神卡特尔”（Phoebus Cartel）秘密同盟——各大照明巨头曾强制将灯泡寿命腰斩至 1000 小时，以此催生了现代工业的“计划性报废”。随后，主讲人探讨了从早期的尼龙丝袜到苹果公司“降频门”及不可拆卸电池的现代报废手段，并剖析了大萧条时期提倡法定报废的经济悖论与讽刺电影《白衣男子》。最终，内容展示了通用汽车如何首创利用外观更新制造过时感的“动态报废”，并指出当今唯有像 LED 照明这种大幅提升能效的“技术报废”，才是对社会真正有益的进步形态。 ## Atmosphere & style 全片充斥着 Veritasium 标志性的调查揭秘感与理性质疑氛围，开篇从看似荒谬的都市传说反转切入，引人入胜。Derek Muller 的叙述兼具冷峻的历史批判与风趣的黑色幽默，将商业巨头的合谋密约与公众日常体验中的荒唐感紧密交织。观感如同抽丝剥茧般揭开现代消费主义的底色，既带来令人脊背发凉的行业内幕冲击，又在结尾技术迭代的展望中留下了理性的释怀与思辨。 ## Bulletin - [03:01](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=181s) 1924年成立的太阳神卡特尔通过密谋与严厉罚款，强制将全球白炽灯泡寿命从2000-2500小时直接腰斩至1000小时，开创了现代工业的人为计划性报废先河。 - [08:42](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=522s) 大萧条时期的学者伯纳德·伦敦曾激进提议由政府法定商品的强制报废年限，试图通过毁灭耐用商品来维持就业与社会分工循环。 - [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) 通用汽车在1920年代开创了“动态报废”策略，通过每年推出新配色和微调外观制造过时感，将车主的置换周期从5年压缩至2年。 - [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) 现代LED技术将能耗降至传统白炽灯的十分之一并将寿命延长高达50倍，标志着唯一值得提倡的“技术报废”最终打破了百年计划性报废的垄断怪圈。 ## Key takeaways - [00:02](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=2s) 加州利弗莫尔消防局的百年灯泡自1901年起已无间断点亮超120年，证明人类早期工业具备制造极长寿命产品的工程能力。 - [01:39](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=99s) 传统白炽灯输入能量中超过95%以无用热量形式损耗，工作状态下灯丝承受高达2800开尔文的高温热应力。 - [01:39](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=99s) 伴随钨丝工艺突破，1920年代初灯泡平均寿命曾攀升至2000至2500小时，直接威胁到了照明寡头的设备换新市场需求。 - [03:01](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=181s) 由飞利浦、通用电气、欧司朗等巨头组成的太阳神卡特尔，通过抽检机架和高额罚款强行压低灯泡使用寿命以拉动销量增长。 - [04:59](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=299s) 卡特尔成员甚至指令工程师进行逆向工程，通过更换劣质材料与削弱引线结构故意降低灯丝耐热应力极限。 - [04:59](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=299s) 百年灯泡的长寿得益于其诞生于卡特尔建立前、仅有4至5瓦的极低运行功率，以及常年不灭避免了开关引发的剧烈热胀冷缩循环。 - [07:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=427s) 苹果公司的电池售后高定价以及随后的“降频门”事件，表明现代科技公司仍通过限制设备可维修权与人为降速来迫使用户换新。 - [07:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=427s) 对于跨国科技巨头而言，侵犯维修权和人为降低旧设备性能招致的诉讼罚款，远远低于其强制换新获得的额外商业收益。 - [08:42](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=522s) 1951年经典喜剧电影《白衣男子》以寓言形式展现了耐用产品所引发的群体心理恐慌：资本方与劳动者联手扼杀永不损坏的技术。 - [10:55](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=655s) 20世纪40年代耐用尼龙丝袜问世引发抢购后，厂商同样效仿卡特尔策略指示科研人员刻意削弱纤维韧性以诱导重复消费。 - [10:55](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=655s) 欧美推进的“维修权”法案要求开放技术资料与零配件，但即使消除物理与软件障碍，厂商仍可通过消费者心理机制制造报废。 - [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) 通用汽车引入杜邦丰富车身涂层并推行年更外观，目的不仅是击败福特的单一黑色T型车，更是让自家老车型迅速产生落伍感。 - [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) 现代智能手机通过在圆润与方平边框之间循环往复以及主推特定季度配色，本质上是借用时尚业策略利用微小差异刺激换机焦虑。 - [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) 真正具备正向社会价值的唯有由颠覆性技术突破驱动的“技术报废”，现代LED照明革命便用高能效与超长寿命终结了白炽灯时代。 ## Detailed walkthrough ### [00:02](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=2s) 百年灯泡与“永不损坏之灯”的商业悖论在加利福尼亚州利弗莫尔（Livermore）第 6 消防局内，亮着一颗世界上持续点亮时间最长的白炽灯——“百年灯泡”（Centennial Light Bulb）。自 1901 年安装以来，这盏手工制作的灯泡已不知疲倦地持续亮了整整 120 年，累计运行时间突破 100 万小时。它甚至没有配备普通的电源开关，而是由专用的备用电池和发电机保障供电，远超当今市场上任何灯泡的预期设计寿命。面对这颗奇迹般的灯泡，人们心中难免浮现一个疑问：为何一个多世纪前由人工吹制组装的粗糙元件，能够跨越时代持续燃烧？此前曾有朋友向德里克·穆勒（Derek Muller）讲述过一个都市传说：多年前就有人发明了能够永久使用的灯泡，但这项发明从未被推向大众市场，因为一款“永不损坏的灯泡”在商业上是一个彻底失败的盈利模式——没有重复消费，企业很快就会把产品卖给所有潜在客户，最终落得无客可售的绝境。德里克起初对这一说法嗤之以鼻，认为只要有企业能造出永恒的灯泡，就能凭借绝对优势击垮所有竞争对手，即便需求最终会枯竭，也完全可以通过制定极高的售价赚得盆满钵满。然而，在深入调查工业制造的历史档案后，德里克承认自己的直觉出现了偏差。德里克·穆勒感叹道：“我原本根本无法想象，我们在过去曾经拥有更好的灯泡，然后却故意把它们变得更差，但事实证明我错了。”人类在工业史上的确制造出过更耐用、更优质的技术产品，却又在后来的岁月里处心积虑地人为削弱它们。 - **百年灯泡位置**：加利福尼亚州利弗莫尔第 6 消防局（Livermore Fire Station 6）。 - **投用年份与运行时长**：1901 年投入使用，已无间断点亮超过 120 年，累积工作逾 100 万小时。 - **运行配置**：无常规开关控制，直连供电线路并配有备用电池与独立发电机组。 --- ### [01:39](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=99s) 白炽灯的技术演进与寿命转折点发明实用的电照明设备是 19 世纪技术攻关的险峰。传统的白炽灯工作原理，本质上是通过让电流流经高阻抗材料，使其剧烈升温直至白炽发光。从能源效率的角度审视，白炽灯甚至称不上真正的“照明灯”，而更像是一台发热效率极高的“加热器”：输入灯泡的电能中，转化为可见光的比例不足 5%，其余 95% 以上全部作为无用的热量消散到环境中。处于工作状态的灯丝温度可高达 2800 开尔文（Kelvin），这一数值几乎达到了太阳表面温度的一半。在如此骇人的高温炙烤下，绝大多数常见金属与非金属材料都会迅速熔化；即便不发生相变熔化，材料在空气中暴露时也会瞬间与氧气发生剧烈的氧化燃烧反应。早在 1840 年代，沃伦·德拉鲁（Warren De la Rue）便提出了将灯丝密封在真空玻璃泡内部的先驱构想，通过抽干内部空气来隔绝氧气。 ```mermaid flowchart LR accTitle: 白炽灯寿命演进历程 accDescr: 展示白炽灯从早期棉线、碳化材料到钨丝的寿命提升过程 A["1840s: 沃伦·德拉鲁 真空玻璃泡构想"] --> B["1879: 爱迪生 碳化棉线灯丝 (14 小时)"] B --> C["19 世纪末 - 20 世纪初 铂金与碳化材料改良"] C --> D["1910s: 钨丝灯普及 超高熔点材料"] D --> E["1920s 初 平均寿命达 2000-2500 小时"] ``` 到了 1879 年，托马斯·爱迪生（Thomas Edison）采用碳化棉线灯丝制造的灯泡成功实现了持续发光 14 小时；随后各路发明家相继尝试了铂金以及各类碳化有机纤维。随着冶金与工艺的突破，灯丝材质最终确立为具有极高熔点的纯金属钨（Tungsten）。进入 1920 年代初期，电灯泡的平均使用寿命已经攀升至接近 2000 小时，部分批次的高品质产品甚至能够稳定运行 2500 小时。然而，正当灯泡向着“更长寿命、更可靠”的工业理想迈进时，灯泡的使用寿命却突兀地停止了增长，甚至掉头急剧下跌。 --- ### [03:01](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=181s) 太阳神卡特尔的密谋：将灯泡寿命腰斩至一千小时灯泡寿命逆转的根源，始于 1924 年圣诞节前夕在瑞士日内瓦举行的一场高度机密的商业巨头会议。当时，掌控着全球照明工业命脉的顶级跨国企业高管悉数到场，包括荷兰飞利浦（Philips）、国际通用电气（International General Electric）、日本东京电气（Tokyo Electric，东芝前身）、德国欧司朗（OSRAM）以及英国联合电气（Associated Electrical Industries）等。这批垄断巨头在密室内正式结盟，以希腊光明之神“福玻斯”为代号，组成了臭名昭著的“太阳神卡特尔”（Phoebus Cartel）。在电气工业诞生初期，市场上分布着大量各自为政的小型照明灯具制造商，但在经历了一系列的兼并与重组之后，全球市场已被这几家各自划地为界、称霸一方的巨无霸企业完全瓜分。彼时这些寡头所共同面对的最大“生存威胁”，恰恰是灯泡技术的飞速进步与寿命的不断延长。以德国欧司朗为例：1923 年该公司在全球售出了 6300 万只灯泡，然而仅仅一年之后的 1924 年，由于市售灯泡太耐用，更换需求暴跌，其全年灯泡销量断崖式下滑至 2800 万只。面对严重被侵蚀的市场基本盘，卡特尔成员一致认为必须联手操纵全球灯泡供应。德里克·穆勒指出卡特尔的核心决议：“所有卡特尔成员公司都同意将其灯泡的寿命缩短至 1000 小时，将原有的平均寿命直接削减了将近一半。” ```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: 太阳神卡特尔运作与监督机制 accDescr: 展示太阳神卡特尔如何通过设立测试台与惩罚机制强制压低灯泡寿命 subgraph Cartel["太阳神卡特尔监督闭环"] A["成员巨头达成秘密协议 (强制 1000 小时寿命上限)"] --> B["各厂商定期寄送生产抽检样品"] B --> C["集中置于专门测试台进行加速点亮测试"] C --> D{"样品运行寿命检测"} D -->|"寿命显著超标 (如超过 3000 小时)"| E["按每千只售出灯泡 罚款 200 瑞士法郎"] D -->|"寿命降至 ~1000 小时"| F["通过审查进入市场流通"] F --> G["消费者被迫增加购买频率 销量激增且利润翻倍"] end ``` 为了防止个别成员因谋求私利而偷偷生产长寿命灯泡抢占市场，卡特尔制定了极严苛的监督与惩罚机制。各家厂商必须将工厂生产线上的灯泡样品定期寄送至专门的测试中心，由工作人员安装在巨大的机架上进行寿命测试。一旦某家厂商的灯泡实际使用寿命明显超过 1000 小时的基准线，该厂商便会面临高额罚款；若灯泡运行寿命突破 3000 小时，每售出 1000 只灯泡就要缴纳 200 瑞士法郎的巨额违约金。现存的历史商业档案中，至今仍完好保存着当年向违规企业开具罚单的真实凭证。 --- ### [04:59](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=299s) 逆向工程、卡特尔的解体与百年灯泡的长寿原因原本肩负着探索如何延长材料耐用度使命的工程师们，突然接到了来自高层的荒诞指令：动用一切专业知识，研究如何让灯泡“更早坏掉”。工程师们为此进行了广泛的逆向研发，他们不断更换劣质材料、重新设计灯丝形状、故意将引线连接处削薄，从物理结构上降低灯丝耐受热应力的极限。冷酷的数据证明了这一逆向工程的“成功”：自卡特尔成立以来，全球灯泡的平均寿命呈现断崖式下跌，到 1934 年，市场上流通灯泡的平均寿命已被精准压低至 1205 小时。商业层面上，卡特尔的阴谋获得了丰厚的回报。在 1926 年之后的短短四年内，卡特尔联盟成员的整体灯泡销量暴增了 25%。更讽刺的是，虽然随着生产规模扩大和工业技术进步，零部件本身的制造成本在不断下滑，但各家垄断公司却借助卡特尔的价格同盟维持产品终端售价稳定不变，双向挤压之下赚取了惊人的暴利。在对外宣传中，太阳神卡特尔始终冠冕堂皇地宣称其成立宗旨是为了促进全球照明灯具的“标准化与高效率”——他们确实在全球范围内统一了通用的螺口规格（即沿用至今的爱迪生螺口），但历史的铁证早已揭穿，其根本驱动力始终是对垄断利润与刺激销量的无底线追逐，与消费者的利益背道而驰。这也解释了利弗莫尔消防局的百年灯泡为何能持续长存： 1. **不受垄断协议约束**：该灯泡制造于 1901 年，诞生于卡特尔建立前 20 余年，属于早期不计成本追求高质量的手工匠心产物； 2. **极低的运行功率**：它最初仅被当作消防局夜间防止消防员在暗中绊倒的夜行辅助灯（Nightlight），实际设计功率仅为 4 至 5 瓦，灯丝承受的热负荷微乎其微； 3. **避免热循环疲劳**：由于常年保持点亮状态、几乎从不关闭，灯泡避开了频繁开关灯所带来的剧烈“热胀冷缩”循环，极大地规避了机械应力对纤细灯丝的拉扯破坏。太阳神卡特尔原本设定的联盟有效期限至少至 1955 年，但它早在 1930 年代便已摇摇欲坠。一方面，联盟外部独立小厂商的低价长寿竞争不断蚕食其份额，另一方面联盟内部私下违约超产的行为屡禁不绝。最终，随着第二次世界大战的全面爆发，跨国利益链条彻底断裂，该卡特尔宣告瓦解。然而，卡特尔开创的商业恶习不仅没有随之消亡，反而演变成现代工业中被奉为圭臬的“计划性报废”（Planned Obsolescence）。 --- ### [07:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=427s) 现代科技与“计划性报废”：从 iPod 到 iPhone 降频门 “计划性报废”的本质，是通过人为设计技术壁垒或机械短板，强制缩短产品的使用寿命，迫使消费者在现有设备尚未完全丧失使用价值前进行重复消费。早在大众流媒体和社交媒体尚未崛起的 2003 年，著名创作者凯西·奈斯塔特（Casey Neistat）就凭借一部揭露这一现象的短片引起了全网轰动。在该短片中，凯西致电苹果公司的官方售后支持热线，反映自己花费数百美元购买了仅 18 个月的 iPod 播放器电池彻底坏死。苹果客服代表在电话中冷淡地回复称，设备已过保修期，更换电池需收取 255 美元的翻新维修费，外加额外的双向邮寄费。面对昂贵的维修门槛，苹果客服代表甚至在通话中直言不讳：“但是按这个价格，你还不如直接去买个新的。”这段电话录音视频在网络时代初期引发了巨大的舆论风暴，并直接促成了一场针对苹果公司的集体诉讼，最终苹果在法庭外达成了和解协议。然而，昂贵的诉讼并未阻遏科技巨头践行计划性报废的步伐。2017 年，苹果推送了一次 iOS 系统更新，随后全球大量使用旧款 iPhone 的用户发现设备运行出现严重卡顿，应用加载速度奇慢无比，甚至频繁出现无预警的自动关机。在舆论爆发后，苹果官方辩称，此举是为了防止老旧锂电池峰值功率不足而采取的“降频保护机制”，旨在提升旧设备的整体稳定性与续航能力。然而，如果手机硬件允许用户自行轻松更换一块廉价的新电池，这种所谓的“保护机制”根本就不攻自破。这一“降频门”在 2020 年以多起集体诉讼告终，苹果被迫支付了高达数亿美元的巨额罚金与和解金。德里克·穆勒对此一针见血地评价道：“毫无疑问，这笔赔偿金额与他们通过限制产品使用寿命所获得的额外收入相比，简直是小巫见大巫。”对于跨国科技公司而言，通过剥夺可维修权与人为降低旧设备性能所换来的数百亿新机销售利润，足以让他们把法庭罚单视作微不足道的“商业营运成本”。 --- ### [08:42](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=522s) 刺激经济的极端设想与荧幕寓言：《白衣男子》尽管在普通消费者看来，计划性报废纯粹是资本贪婪的恶性产物，但在历史上，甚至曾有学者将其包装成能够“拯救全民福利”的救世良方。在 1930 年代的大萧条时期，全美多达四分之一的劳动力陷入失业绝境，工厂停产、经济陷入严重通缩。在这一背景下，纽约房地产经纪人伯纳德·伦敦（Bernard London）于 1932 年撰写论文，激进地提出了由国家出面强制实施“法定计划性报废”的设想，试图以此倒逼工业生产、拉动就业，从而带领美国走出萧条泥潭。伯纳德·伦敦在方案中主张由国家强行介入商品的物理存续期，他写道：“我主张让政府在鞋子、房屋和机器最初制造出来时就赋予它们一段使用年限，它们将在明确告知消费者的存续期内被销售和使用；当规定的时间到期后，这些物品在法律上就被视为‘已死亡’，如果出现广泛的失业，它们将由正式指定的政府机构接管并销毁。”在伯纳德·伦敦的乌托邦式设想中，如果一件商品质量太好而能永久用下去，整个社会的分工体系与再生产循环就会停摆，工人将被剥夺谋生的饭碗。这种看似荒诞不经的激进理论，反映了当时大众对技术进步使产品“过于耐用”而导致普遍失业的深切焦虑。1951 年上映并获得奥斯卡最佳改编剧本提名的英国经典讽刺喜剧电影《白衣男子》（The Man in the White Suit），便淋漓尽致地刻画了这一群体心理悖论： | 角色立场 | 代表群体 | 对“永不损坏之布”的态度与动机 | |:--- |:--- |:--- | | **发明者** | 青年科学家西德尼·斯特拉顿（Sidney Stratton） | 沉浸于科技突破，成功将氨基酸残基与碳水化合物共聚，研发出不脏、不烂、不磨损的完美纤维。 | | **资本方** | 纺织工厂主们 | 陷入绝望与恐慌：若衣服一件能穿一辈子，全球纺织市场将在极短时间内饱和崩塌，无货可卖。 | | **劳动者** | 纺织厂工人与底层洗衣妇 | 担忧生计断绝：工人面临大规模裁员，洗衣女工则质问“若无脏衣可洗，我该如何维持生计”。 | 在电影的高潮片段中，原本水火不容的资产阶级工厂主与无产阶级产业工人竟戏剧性地摒弃前嫌，联手组成搜捕队，在街头围追堵截这名身穿发光白西装的天才科学家，誓要将他以及这项颠覆性的长寿发明彻底毁灭。现实往往比戏剧更加讽刺，这一剧本所隐喻的荒诞情节，恰恰取材于现实商业社会中真实上演的产业阻击战。 ### [10:55](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=655s) 尼龙丝袜、维修权与人为报废的局限 20世纪40年代，合成纤维尼龙（nylon）在长统袜制造中取代了传统蚕丝。由于尼龙极其结实耐磨，这种新产品几乎在一夜之间引发了抢购狂潮，女性消费者为了买到一双尼龙丝袜甚至引发了街头骚乱。然而，制造商很快意识到自己把产品造得过于耐用了，长此以往将难以维持持续的销量。他们虽然没有直接销毁这项纤维技术，却效仿了当年太阳神卡特尔（Phoebus Cartel）的做法，直接指示工程师和科学家研究削弱纤维韧性的方法，人为缩短丝袜的使用寿命，以此迫使消费者不得不频繁重复购买。面对厂商层出不穷的人为报废手段，如今的消费者终于开始拿起法律武器进行反击。在欧盟以及美国超过25个州，立法机构已经提出了确立“维修权”（Right to Repair）的法案。这些法律将强制制造商降低产品的维修门槛，要求其公开维修手册等技术信息，并向市场提供零配件渠道。如此一来，消费者便可以在第三方维修店更换手机电池或修复破损屏幕，而无需担心产品保修失效。然而，Derek Muller 指出，即便维修权法案全面落地，人为报废也绝不会彻底消失：“可悲的是，答案是否定的，因为制造商还可以利用最后一样东西来让产品过时，那就是你本身。” - **尼龙丝袜的退化**：厂商故意降低合成纤维耐用性以刺激回购。 - **维修权法案核心诉求**：强制开放维修技术文档与原厂零配件。 - **第三方维修保障**：允许用户在非官方网点更换部件且不影响质保。 --- ### [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) 通用汽车与“动态报废”的诞生早在1908年，亨利·福特（Henry Ford）推出了首款面向大众市场的汽车——福特T型车（Model T）。福特将汽车视为耐用的“干活工具”，希望它像一盏永远不灭的电灯泡一样结实廉价且不会磨损。关于这一设计哲学，福特在1922年曾公开表示：“我们希望购买我们汽车的人永远不需要再买第二辆，我们从不做出任何会让之前型号过时的改进。”然而到了1920年，全美已有55%的家庭拥有了汽车，几乎所有买得起车的人都已购置完毕。恰逢同年出现了一场小型经济衰退，福特和通用汽车（General Motors）的新车销量双双出现大幅下滑。 ```mermaid flowchart TD accTitle: 汽车报废策略演变 accDescr: 展示福特耐用理念向通用汽车动态报废策略的转变过程 subgraph Ford["福特理念（1908-1922）"] A["追求持久耐用"] --> B["单一黑色外观"] B --> C["市场迅速趋于饱和"] end subgraph GM["通用汽车动态报废（1921-1955）"] D["杜邦入股掌控"] --> E["引入丰富色彩车身"] E --> F["每年推出全新外观款式"] F --> G["缩短用户置换周期"] end C -.->|"遭遇增长瓶颈"| D ``` 1921年，化学和涂料巨头杜邦（DuPont）收购了通用汽车的控股权，并开始尝试为汽车喷涂不同的颜色。在此之前，亨利·福特的名言是顾客可以选择任何喜欢的颜色，“只要它是黑色的”。经过几年的技术测试，通用汽车在1924年推出了首批多色彩汽车，并随即开创了一项如今大众极为熟悉的商业花招：每年都推出不同配色的新款车型。通用的目的不仅是让福特的T型车显得陈旧过时，更是为了让自己上一年的老车型迅速产生过时感，从而诱导消费者把旧车折价换购成闪闪发光的新车。多年以后，通用汽车的设计主管哈利·厄尔（Harley Earl）坦率地谈及自己在开创所谓的“动态报废”（dynamic obsolescence）中所扮演的角色。厄尔直言不讳地指出：“我们的大任务就是加速报废。在1934年，汽车的平均拥有时长是五年。到了现在，也就是1955年，变成了两年。当它变成一年的时候，我们就算拿到满分了。”在发表这番言论时，通用汽车已经跃居为全球市值最高的公司，每年在美国销售的汽车中有一半都出自其门下。 - **1920年市场饱和**：全美55%家庭拥有汽车，刚需市场见顶。 - **杜邦涂料实验**：打破T型车清一色全黑的单一外观限制。 - **置换周期缩减**：通用将车主换车间隔从5年强行压缩至2年。 --- ### [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) 苹果公司的时尚把戏与技术报废的正道在当今时代，全球市值最高的科技公司苹果（Apple）似乎直接全盘照搬了通用汽车的这套陈旧策略。每隔一年推出新的外观风格、每年主推几款特殊专属配色、每次发布会带来微乎其微的技术提升。Derek Muller 质疑这到底是真正有价值的创新，还是纯粹的商业噱头。通用汽车和苹果的真正灵感均来源于时尚界——在那个领域真正的技术创新几乎不可能发生，因此促使人们产生紧迫感去消费的唯一途径，就是创造只能维持一个季度的流行款式。这种策略的弊端在于款式轮替得过快，当创意枯竭时，企业便只能重新搬出几十年前的老设计来循环炒作。iPhone 的外观演变完美展现了这一轮回趋势：边框最初是圆弧的，接着被切平变方，随后又改回圆润边缘，如今再次回归平直边缘。正如 Derek Muller 所总结的：“我认为重点在于，对于设计和造型而言，并不存在所谓的最好，只有不同而已；而这种不同显然足以提醒我们手中的不是最新最好的产品，从而催促我们赶紧跑去买买买。” 真正值得全社会支持的报废形式只有“技术报废”（Technological Obsolescence），而这恰恰把话题带回了电灯泡。在过去20年间，照明行业从百年未变的老旧白炽灯，跨越到紧凑型荧光灯（CFL），再跃升至现代 LED 灯泡。LED 的能耗仅为传统白炽灯的十分之一，使用寿命却延长了10到50倍。如今用户安装一只高品质 LED 灯泡，很可能直到把房子卖掉都不需要更换一次。在历经了一个世纪的报废阴谋后，人类终于在技术层面迎来了实质上“永远不灭的灯泡”。 - **时尚周期轮回**：iPhone 边框造型在圆润与方正之间来回倒腾。 - **心理暗示驱动消费**：用细微的外观变化制造落伍焦虑。 - **LED照明革命**：能耗降至原来的十分之一，使用寿命提升高达50倍。 --- ### [16:05](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=965s) 赞助商信息：突破地域限制与网络隐私保护视频结尾介绍了本期内容的赞助商 NordVPN。Derek Muller 提到自己曾参与录制了英国知名电视问答节目《QI》（Quite Interesting），该节目目前虽已上线 Netflix，但仅面向英国境内的网络用户播放。他认为，当今的影视行业仍然受困于过时的商业模式，在信息早已能在互联网上自由流动的时代，依然僵化地划分全球版权播放区域。借助虚拟专用网络（VPN），用户可以将网络虚拟定位切换至英国，畅享全球不同区域的内容资源。除了绕过流媒体版权限制，NordVPN 还具备保护个人数据隐私的核心功能： - **双重 IP 混淆**：提供双重加密（Double VPN），为网络流量增加额外防护层。 - **严格零日志政策**：绝不追踪、收集或向第三方分享任何用户个人数据。 - **优惠与保障**：提供两年期订阅大幅折扣、专属优惠码额外赠送一个月，并享有30天无理由退款保障。 ## Notable quotes > [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) 我们的大任务就是加速报废。在 1934 年，汽车的平均拥有时长是五年。到了现在，也就是 1955 年，变成了两年。当它变成一年的时候，我们就算拿到满分了。 — 哈利·厄尔 > [12:08](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=728s) 我们希望购买我们汽车的人永远不需要再买第二辆，我们从不做出任何会让之前型号过时的改进。 — 亨利·福特 > [10:55](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=655s) 制造商还可以利用最后一样东西来让产品过时，那就是你本身。 — 德里克·穆勒 > [14:07](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=847s) 对于设计和造型而言，并不存在所谓的最好，只有不同而已；而这种不同显然足以提醒我们手中的不是最新最好的产品，从而催促我们赶紧跑去买买买。 — 德里克·穆勒 > [00:02](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE&t=2s) 我原本根本无法想象，我们在过去曾经拥有更好的灯泡，然后却故意把它们变得更差，但事实证明我错了。 — 德里克·穆勒 ## Mentioned 百年灯泡, 德里克·穆勒, 沃伦·德拉鲁, 托马斯·爱迪生, 太阳神卡特尔, 飞利浦, 国际通用电气, 东京电气, 欧司朗, 联合电气, 凯西·奈斯塔特, 苹果公司, iPod, iPhone, iOS, 伯纳德·伦敦, 《白衣男子》, 西德尼·斯特拉顿, 尼龙丝袜, 亨利·福特, 福特T型车, 通用汽车, 杜邦, 哈利·厄尔, LED灯泡, NordVPN, 《QI》 ## Video description This video is about stuff: light bulbs, printers, phones and why they aren't better. Go to https://NordVPN.com/veritasium and use code VERITASIUM to get a 2-year plan plus 1 additional month with a huge discount. It’s risk free with Nord’s 30 day money-back guarantee! References: The Man in the White Suit — https://ve42.co/Suit London, B. (1932). Ending the depression through planned obsolescence. — https://ve42.co/London32 Slade, G. (2009). Made to break: Technology and obsolescence in America. Harvard University Press — https://ve42.co/madetobreak Krajewski, M. (2014). The great lightbulb conspiracy. IEEE spectrum, 51(10), 56-61. — https://ve42.co/Phoebus Planet Money, The Phoebus Cartel - https://ve42.co/PMobs The Light Bulb Conspiracy - https://youtu.be/e9xmn228HM0 Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Mac Malkawi, Oleksii Leonov, Michael Schneider, Jim Osmun, Tyson McDowell, Ludovic Robillard, jim buckmaster, fanime96, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Lyvann Ferrusca, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Joar Wandborg, Clayton Greenwell, Pindex, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev Animation by Ivy Tello Filmed by Derek Muller and Raquel Nuno Edited by Derek Muller Video supplied by Getty Images Music by Jonny Hyman and from https://epidemicsound.com"Aquatic Planet", "Rhythm of Dreams", "Tread Lightly", "Unexpected Visitors", "Curved Mirrors" "Drunken Lullaby" "Fluorescent Lights" Thumbnail by Raquel Nuno and Karri Denise [Source](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j5v8D-alAKE)

Source quotes

[12:08] 哈利·厄尔: 我们的大任务就是加速报废。在 1934 年，汽车的平均拥有时长是五年。到了现在，也就是 1955 年，变成了两年。当它变成一年的时候，我们就算拿到满分了。 [12:08] 亨利·福特: 我们希望购买我们汽车的人永远不需要再买第二辆，我们从不做出任何会让之前型号过时的改进。 [10:55] 德里克·穆勒: 制造商还可以利用最后一样东西来让产品过时，那就是你本身。 [14:07] 德里克·穆勒: 对于设计和造型而言，并不存在所谓的最好，只有不同而已；而这种不同显然足以提醒我们手中的不是最新最好的产品，从而催促我们赶紧跑去买买买。 [0:02] 德里克·穆勒: 我原本根本无法想象，我们在过去曾经拥有更好的灯泡，然后却故意把它们变得更差，但事实证明我错了。

Source quotes

[12:08] Henry Ford: We want the man who buys one of our cars never to have to buy another, we never make an improvement that renders any previous model obsolete. [14:07] Derek Muller: I think the point is that with design and styling, there is no best, there's only different, which is apparently enough to remind us that we don't have the latest and greatest, and so we have to rush out and keep buying. [12:08] Harley Earl: Our big job is to hasten obsolescence. In 1934, the average car ownership span was five years. Now, which was 1955, it is two years. When it is one year, we will have a perfect score.

Original transcript

[0:02] - This is a video about things like cars, [0:05] phones, and light bulbs and an actual conspiracy [0:09] that made them worse. [0:12] This video was sponsored by NordVPN, [0:14] more about them at the end of the video [0:17] I am outside Livermore Fire Station, number six. [0:21] And in here, they have the longest, [0:23] continuously on light bulb in the world. [0:26] It has been on for 120 years [0:30] since 1901. [0:31] There it is. [0:32] - [Host] Yeah, that's it. [0:34] - It's not even connected to a light switch [0:36] but it does have a backup battery and generator. [0:39] So the big question is, [0:40] how has this light bulb lasted so long? [0:43] It was manufactured by hand not long [0:45] after commercial light bulbs were first invented, [0:48] And yet, it has been running for over a million hours, [0:52] way longer than any light bulb today is meant to last. [0:55] Awhile back, a friend of mine told me this story, [0:58] that someone had invented a light bulb [1:00] that would last forever years ago, [1:02] but they never sold it [1:04] because an everlasting light bulb makes [1:06] for a terrible business model. [1:08] I mean, you would never have any repeat customers [1:10] and eventually you would run out [1:12] of people to sell light bulbs to, [1:14] I thought this story sounded ridiculous. [1:16] If you could make an everlasting light bulb, [1:19] then everyone would buy your light bulb [1:21] over the competitors. [1:22] And so you could charge really high prices, [1:24] make a lot of money, even if demand would eventually dry up. [1:28] I just couldn't imagine that we had better light bulbs [1:30] in the past and then intentionally made them worse, [1:34] but it turns out I was wrong. [1:37] At least sort of. [1:39] Inventing a viable electric light was hard, [1:42] I mean, this is the typical incandescent design, [1:45] which just involves passing electric current [1:46] through a material making it so hot that it glows, [1:51] less than 5% of the electrical energy comes out as light. [1:54] The other 95% is released as heat. [1:58] So these are really heat bulbs, [2:00] which give off a little bit of light as a by-product. [2:03] The temperature of the filament can get up to 2,800 Kelvin. [2:07] That is half as hot as the surface of the sun. [2:11] At temperatures like those, most materials melt. [2:14] - That's so cool. - And if they don't melt, [2:15] they burn, [2:17] which is why in the 1840s, Warren De la Rue came [2:20] up with the idea of putting the filament in a vacuum bulb, [2:23] so there's no oxygen to react with. [2:26] By 1879, Thomas Edison had made a bulb [2:29] with a cotton thread filament that lasted 14 hours. [2:33] Other inventors created bulbs with platinum filaments [2:36] or other carbonized materials. [2:38] And gradually, the lifespan of bulbs increased. [2:42] The filaments changed from carbon to tungsten, [2:45] which has a very high melting point. [2:47] And by the early 1920s, average bulb lifetimes [2:50] were approaching 2,000 hours with some lasting 2,500 hours. [2:56] But this is when lifetimes stopped getting longer [2:59] and started getting shorter. [3:01] In Geneva, Switzerland just before Christmas, 1924, [3:05] there was a secret meeting of top executives [3:08] from the world's leading light bulb companies, [3:10] Phillips, International General Electric, [3:13] Tokyo Electric, OSRAM from Germany, [3:16] and the UK's Associated Electric among others. [3:19] They formed what became known [3:21] as the Phoebus Cartel named after Phoebus, [3:24] the Greek God of light. [3:26] There, all these companies agreed [3:28] to work together to help each other [3:31] by controlling the world supply of light bulbs. [3:36] In the early days of the electrical industry, [3:38] there had been lots of different [3:39] small light bulb manufacturers, [3:41] but by now they had largely been consolidated [3:44] into these big corporations, [3:46] each dominant in a particular part of the world. [3:49] The biggest threat they all faced was [3:51] from longer lasting light bulbs. [3:53] For example, in 1923, OSRAM sold 63 million light bulbs, [3:58] but the following year they sold only 28 million. [4:02] Light bulbs were lasting too long, eating into sales. [4:06] So all the companies in the cartel agreed [4:08] to reduce the lifespan of their bulbs [4:11] to 1,000 hours cutting the existing average almost in half. [4:17] But how could each company ensure [4:19] that the other companies would actually follow the rules [4:22] and make shorter lasting light bulb. [4:25] After all, it would be in each of their individual interests [4:27] to make a better product to outsell the others? [4:30] Well, to enforce the 1,000 hour limit, [4:32] each of the manufacturers have to send in sample bulbs [4:35] from their factories and they were tested on big test stands [4:39] like this one. [4:41] If a bulb lasted [4:42] significantly longer than 1,000 thousand hours, [4:45] then the company was fined. [4:47] If a bulb lasted longer than 3000 hours, [4:50] well the fine was 200 Swiss Francs [4:52] for every 1,000 bulbs sold. [4:55] And there are records [4:56] of these fines being issued to companies. [4:59] But how do you make a worst light bulb in the first place? [5:03] Well, the same engineers who had previously been tasked [5:06] with extending the lifespan now had to find ways [5:09] to decrease it. [5:10] So they tried different materials, [5:12] different shaped filaments, and thinner connections. [5:15] And if you look at the data, they were successful. [5:18] Ever since the formation of the cartel. [5:20] the lifespan of light bulbs steadily decreased. [5:23] So that by 1934, the average lifespan was just 1,205 hours. [5:29] And just as they had planned, sales increased [5:32] for cartel members by 25% in the four years after 1926. [5:37] And even though the cost of components came down, [5:40] the cartel kept prices virtually unchanged, [5:43] so they increased their profit margins. [5:46] So did people know that the light bulb companies [5:49] were conspiring together to make their products worse? [5:52] No, the Phoebus Cartel claimed that its purpose was [5:56] to increase standardization and efficiency of light bulbs. [6:00] I mean, they did establish this screw thread is standard. [6:03] You can find it on virtually all light bulbs [6:05] around the world now. [6:07] But all evidence points to the cartels being motivated [6:09] by profits and increased sales, [6:12] not by what was best for consumers. [6:15] So one of the reasons this light bulb has lasted so long is [6:18] because it was made before the cartel era. [6:21] Another reason is because the filament has always been run [6:24] at low power, just four or five watts. [6:27] It was meant to be a nightlight [6:29] for the fire station to provide just enough light [6:32] so that firemen wouldn't run into things at night. [6:35] And the fact that it was always [6:36] on reduced the thermal cycling [6:38] of the filament and components limiting the stress caused [6:41] by thermal expansion and contraction. [6:44] The Phoebus Cartel was initially planned to last [6:47] at least until 1955, but it fell apart in the 1930s. [6:52] It was already struggling due to outside competition. [6:55] And non-compliance amongst some of its members, [6:58] but the outbreak of World War II is [7:00] really what finished it off. [7:01] So this cartel was dead, [7:04] but its methods survived to this day. [7:07] There are lots of companies out there [7:09] that intentionally shortened the lifespan of their products [7:13] it's a tactic known now as planned obsolescence. [7:17] This was actually the subject of Casey Neistat's [7:20] first viral video all the way back in 2003. [7:23] - [Support] Thank you for calling Apple, my name is Ryan. [7:25] May I have your first name please? [7:27] - [Casey] Casey. [7:28] - [Support] ] All right, and what seems [7:29] to be the issue today? [7:30] - [Casey] I have an iPod that I bought about 18 months ago [7:32] and the battery is dead on it. [7:35] - [Support] 18 months, okay, it's past it year, [7:36] which basically means there'll be a charge [7:39] of $255 plus a mailing fee to send it to us [7:44] to refurbish, to correct it. [7:47] But at that price, you might as well go get a new one. [7:51] - [Narrator] This video got millions of views [7:53] in a time before YouTube or social media. [7:56] And it spawned a class action lawsuit, [7:58] which Apple settled out of court, [8:01] but it didn't stop the company [8:02] from practicing planned obsolescence. [8:04] After an iOS update in 2017, [8:07] users of older iPhones found apps loading [8:09] significantly slower or the device shutting down altogether. [8:14] Apple said they throttled performance to protect the battery [8:17] of older devices and increase their longevity. [8:20] Of course, that wouldn't be an issue [8:22] if the battery were replaceable. [8:24] In a series of lawsuits that concluded in 2020, [8:27] Apple was fined or reached settlements [8:30] to pay hundreds of millions of dollars, [8:33] undoubtedly, this amount pales in comparison [8:36] to the extra revenue they generate [8:37] by limiting the lifespan of their products. [8:42] But some would argue that planned obsolescence isn't [8:44] just about greed, but that it's also good for everyone. [8:49] During the great depression in the 1930s [8:51] when as much as 1/4 of Americans were out of work [8:54] and real estate broker Bernard London [8:57] proposed mandatory planned obsolescence [9:00] as a way to get people back to work [9:01] and lift America out of the depression. [9:04] He wrote, "I would have the government assign a lease [9:06] of life to shoes, and homes, and machines [9:09] when they are first created [9:11] and they would be sold and used within the term [9:13] of their existence, definitely known by the consumer. [9:17] After the allotted time had expired, [9:19] these things would be legally dead [9:21] and would be controlled by the duly [9:23] appointed governmental agency and destroyed [9:26] if there is widespread unemployment." [9:29] Now, this might sound like a wild fringe idea, [9:32] but people were clearly afraid of being put out of work [9:35] by technological progress and products that were too good. [9:39] There was even a popular Oscar nominated film about it. [9:42] "This is the man in the white suit from 1951." [9:47] It's about a scientist who invents the perfect fiber. [9:50] It won't stain or break, or fray. [9:52] - I think I've succeeded [9:53] in the copolymerization of amino acid residues [9:56] and carbohydrate molecules, both containing ionic groups. [10:01] It's really perfectly simple. [10:02] - [Narrator] The Academy award nomination was [10:04] for best screenplay, I kid you not. [10:08] Anyway, everyone is initially excited [10:11] about our heroes scientific discovery. [10:13] He makes a suit out of the thread and it has to be white [10:16] because the fiber is so stain resistant, [10:18] it can't even be dyed, [10:20] but this is when trouble strikes, [10:22] the factory owners realize they won't be able to sell [10:25] as much of this thread because it's so durable. [10:28] And the workers worry it'll put them out of a job. [10:30] - Why can't you scientists leave things alone? [10:36] What about my better washing when there's no washing to do? [10:40] - This is when you get the climactic scene [10:42] where factory workers and factory owners team up [10:46] to chase down the scientist to destroy him [10:48] and his invention. [10:50] And believe it or not, this movie may have been inspired [10:53] by real events. [10:55] In the 1940s, the synthetic fiber nylon replaced silk [10:59] in stockings, and it was so durable [11:01] that the products became an overnight sensation. [11:04] There were literal riots when women tried [11:06] to get their hands on them. [11:08] When the manufacturers realized [11:10] they had made the product too good, [11:12] they didn't destroy the fiber, [11:14] but they did follow the example of the Phoebus Cartel. [11:17] They instructed their engineers and scientists [11:20] to find ways to weaken the product to shorten its lifespan, [11:23] so people would have to buy more. [11:26] Now, it seems like consumers are finally fighting back [11:29] against planned obsolescence. [11:30] In the European union and in over 25 states in the US, [11:34] there's proposed legislation [11:35] to enshrine the right to repair. [11:38] And these laws would force manufacturers [11:40] to make it easier to repair their products. [11:43] They would have to provide information and access to parts. [11:46] So you could replace a battery or fix a cracked screen [11:49] at a third-party repair shop without voiding your warranty. [11:52] So if right to repair does become law, [11:55] does that mean artificial obsolescence [11:56] will be gone for good? [11:58] Sadly, no, because there is [12:00] one last thing manufacturers can use [12:02] to make their products obsolete, which is you. [12:06] (instrumental music) [12:08] Henry Ford released the first mass market car, [12:11] the model T in 1908. [12:13] And he envisioned it like a workhorse, [12:15] an affordable tool that wouldn't wear out, [12:18] a bit like the everlasting light bulb. [12:20] In 1922 Ford said, "We want the man who buys one of our cars [12:24] never to have to buy another, we never make an improvement [12:27] that renders any previous model obsolete." [12:31] But by 1920, 55% of American families already owned a car. [12:36] Nearly everyone that could afford one had one. [12:39] And that same year, [12:40] there was a small economic downturn driving down sales [12:43] for both Ford and General Motors. [12:47] In 1921, DuPont, the chemical and paint company took [12:51] over the controlling share in General Motors. [12:54] And they started experimenting [12:55] with painting cars different colors, [12:57] up until then, Henry Ford had said, [12:59] you could have whatever color you like [13:01] so long as it's black. [13:04] It took a couple of years of testing, but in 1924, [13:07] GM released their first cars in different colors. [13:10] And soon after, they introduced a trick [13:13] that feels very familiar now. [13:16] Each new year, [13:16] they would introduce cars in different colors. [13:21] The goal wasn't just to make Ford's model T lookout dated, [13:24] but to make their own cars feel outdated every year [13:27] encouraging customers to trade in their old cars [13:30] for shiny new ones. [13:32] Years later, GM's head of design, Harley Earl, [13:34] candidly discussed his role in creating [13:36] what he called dynamic obsolescence. [13:39] "Our big job is to hasten obsolescence. [13:42] In 1934, the average car ownership span was five years. [13:46] Now, which was 1955, it is two years. [13:50] When it is one year, we will have a perfect score. [13:54] By the time he said this, General Motors was the [13:57] most valuable company in the world and it's sold half [14:00] of all vehicles purchased in the US every year. [14:07] These days, the world's most valuable company, [14:09] Apple, seems to have copied directly out of this playbook. [14:13] I mean, new styles every year, check, [14:15] new special colors every year, check, [14:18] marginal technological improvement, check. [14:21] I mean, is this useful innovation or just a gimmick? [14:25] The inspiration for General Motors and hence for Apple comes [14:28] from fashion where real innovation is all but impossible. [14:33] So the only way to make people feel the urgency [14:35] to get out there and buy is to create styles [14:38] that last but one season. [14:41] The trouble then is you run [14:42] through these styles too quickly. [14:44] And then what are you supposed to do? [14:45] Well, just recycle the styles from a few decades ago. [14:49] The iPhone also shows this recycling trend. [14:53] I mean, just look at the way the edges were [14:55] initially rounded and then they were squared off [14:58] and then they were rounded again [14:59] and now, they're squared off. [15:01] And how much do you want to bet [15:02] that the iPhone 14 has rounded edges? [15:05] I think the point is that with design and styling, [15:07] there is no best, there's only different, [15:11] which is apparently enough to remind us [15:13] that we don't have the latest and greatest, [15:15] and so we have to rush out and keep buying. [15:19] The only type of obsolescence [15:20] we should support is technological, [15:23] which brings us back to the light bulb. [15:26] In the last 20 years, light bulbs have gone [15:28] from incandescent, which was basically unchanged [15:31] for 100 years to compact fluorescent. [15:34] And now, to LED, these use just a 10th of the energy [15:38] and can last anywhere from 10 to 50 times longer. [15:44] Yeah, that's pretty bright. [15:45] So you're more likely to sell your house [15:48] than to have to replace an LED bulb [15:50] that you've installed inside it. [15:53] So we finally reached the point [15:55] of what is essentially an everlasting light bulb? [15:58] (upbeat music) [16:05] Hey, this video was sponsored by NordVPN. [16:08] I am featured in an episode of the British TV program, [16:11] "QI," it's a show I really like, [16:13] and I'd highly recommend it if you haven't seen it already. [16:16] And it's on Netflix, but only if you're in the UK. [16:19] I feel like TV and film are still trapped [16:22] in antiquated business models [16:23] where they divide up the world into broadcast territories [16:26] that doesn't make a lot of sense [16:28] now that information can flow freely through the Internet. [16:31] Luckily using NordVPN, anyone can set their location [16:34] to the UK and watch whatever they like. [16:37] If you're interested in seeing what streamers have to offer [16:40] in different countries, you can get a huge discount [16:42] on a two-year plan at nordvpn.com/veritasium. [16:46] Use code very Veritasium to get an extra month free [16:49] and using NordVPN, you can also protect your privacy [16:52] by masking your IP address. [16:54] In fact, you can change your IP twice [16:56] to cover your web traffic with an extra layer of security. [17:00] NordVPN has a no logs policy, they don't track collect [17:03] or share your private data, which is what a lot [17:06] of the world's biggest companies are trying to do right now. [17:08] So for privacy, when browsing and access [17:10] to all the shows the world has to offer, [17:12] go to nordvpn.com/veritasium for a huge discount [17:16] of a two year plan and use code Veritasium [17:18] to get one additional month free. [17:20] And this is all risk-free [17:22] with no Nord's 30-day money back guarantee. [17:24] So I wanna thank NordVPN for sponsoring Veritasium [17:27] and I wanna thank you for watching.